ستارلنك

هذا المقال هو عن the SpaceX satellite internet service. إذا كنت تريد الاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر ستارلنك (توضيح).
Starlink
A batch of small satellites attached to the rocket with the Earth in the background
60 Starlink satellites stacked together before deployment on 24 May 2019
المُصنعSpaceX
بلد المنشأUnited States
المشغلSpaceX
التطبيقاتInternet service
Specifications
نوع سفينة الفضاءSmall satellite
كتلة الإطلاق
  • v 0.9: 227 kg (500 lb)
  • v 1.0: 260 kg (570 lb)
  • v 1.5: ~306 kg (675 lb)[1]
  • v 2 mini: 800 kg (1,800 lb)
  • v 2.0: ~1,250 kg (2,760 lb)[2]
العتاد
النظام
الانتاج
الوضعActive since 2019; 5 years ago (2019
Starlink Logo.svg

ستارلنك Starlink عبارة عن مشاريع تطوير مجموعة السواتل وهي قيد التنفيذ من قبل الشركة الأمريكية سپيس‌إكس،[3] لتطوير الناقل الساتلي منخفض التكلفة وعالي الأداء والمطلوب أجهزة الإرسال والاستقبال الأرضية للعملاء لتنفيذ نظام اتصالات الإنترنت الفضائي.[4][5] تخطط سپيس‌إكس أيضاً لبيع الأقمار الصناعية التي تستخدم النواقل الساتلية التي يمكن استخدامها للأغراض العسكرية،[6] ولأغراض علمية أو استكشافية.[7]

Starlink constellation, phase 1, first orbital shell: approximately 1,600 satellites at 550 km altitude
نموذج محاكاة شبكة ستارلنك للإنترنت العالمية

لدى سپيس‌إكس خطط لنشر ما يقرب من 12000 ساتل في ثلاثة هياكل مدارية بحلول منتصف عام 2020: تم وضع 1600 تقريباً في هيكل 550-kilometer (340 mi)- الارتفاع، تم وضع 2800 تقريباً Ku- و Ka-band حيث يتموضع الطيف عند 1,150 km (710 mi) و ~7500 حزمة ڤي عند 340 km (210 mi).[8] تقدر تكلفة المشروع الإجمالية الذي دام عقداً من الزمن لتصميم وبناء ونشر مثل هذه الشبكة تقريباً US$10 billion.[9]

بدأ تطوير المنتج في عام 2015، وتم إطلاق نموذجين اختبار الطيران أوليين من الأقمار الصناعية في فبراير 2018. تم إطلاق مجموعة ثانية من أقمار الاختبار وأول عملية نشر كبيرة لقطعة من المجموعة في 24 مايو 2019 (UTC عندما تم إطلاق أول 60 ساتل تشغيلي.[10] يمكن أن يبدأ التشغيل التجاري الأولي للمجموعة في عام 2020.[11]

منشأة تطوير الأقمار الصناعية سپيس‌إكس في ردموند، واشنطن، حيث تضم عمليات البحث والتطوير والتصنيع والتحكم في المدار لمشروع الإنترنت عبر الأقمار الصناعية.

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التاريخ

سواتل ستارلنك
المرحلة الهيكل المداري (Km) عدد السواتل نصف وقت الإنجاز التعاقدي وقت الانتهاء التعاقدي الكامل الانتهاء الحالي (23 مايو 2019)
1 550 4,409 مارس 2024 مارس 2027 62[بحاجة لمصدر]
2 340 7,518 نوفمبر 2024 نوفمبر 2027 0[بحاجة لمصدر]


الإطلاقات

بحلول مارس 2019، أدرجت شركة سپيس‌إكس أول إطلاق لسواتل ستارلنك في موعد لا يتجاوز مايو 2019.[12] سيتم نشر أول 1،584 في 40 مستوى مداري من 66 ساتل لكل منها، ولكن مع زاوية ارتفاع أدنى مطلوبة: 25 درجة بدلاً من 40 درجة للهيكلين المداريين الأخريين.[13]:17

الإطلاقات
الطيران № التاريخ والزمن (UTC) موقع الإطلاق مركبة الإطلاق [أ] الارتفاع المداري (km) زاوية الميل عدد الانتشارات الحصيلة
1 فبراير 22, 2018 14:17 UTC [14][15] Vandenberg F9 FT ♺ B1038.2[16] 514 97.44°[بحاجة لمصدر] 2 نجاح
ساتلين اختباريين معروفين باسم تن‌تن A و B[17] (MicroSat-2a و 2b) التي تم نشرها كحمولات مشتركة إلى الساتل Paz.
2 مايو 24، 2019 02:30 UTC
[18] 		CCAFS SLC-40 F9 B5 ♺ B1049.3[16] 440 to 550 ~53° 60[19] نجاح[20]
ثاني إطلاق للسواتل التجريبية لمجموعة ستارلنك التابعة لشركة سپيس‌إكس.[8] يُقال أنه "تصميم إنتاج"، سيتم استخدامه لاختبار جوانب مختلفة من الشبكة، بما في ذلك إخراج المدار.[21] لن يكون لديهم قدرات ربط بين السواتل ولن يكونوا قادرين على الاتصال إلا بالهوائيات الأرضية الثابتة.
3 2019 (TBD)[22] CC 39A or 40 F9 B5 ♺ TBD مزمعة
الإطلاق الثالث
4 2019 (TBD)[22] CC 39A or 40 F9 B5 ♺ TBD مزمعة
الإطلاق الرابع

الخدمات

الإنترنت العالمي واسع الحزمة

تعتزم شركة سپيس‌إكس توفير اتصال إنترنت واسع الحزمة بمناطق محرومة على كوكب الأرض، بالإضافة إلى توفير خدمة بأسعار تنافسية للمناطق الحضرية. صرحت الشركة بأن التدفق النقدي الإيجابي من بيع خدمات الإنترنت عبر الأقمار الصناعية سيكون ضرورياً لتمويل مخططات للوصول للمريخ.[23]

الاستخدام خارج الأرض

على المدى الطويل، تعتزم سپيس‌إكس تطوير ونشر نسخة من نظام الاتصالات الساتلية لخدمة المريخ.[24]


Russo-Ukrainian War

Vitali Klitschko, Mayor of Kyiv, and his brother Wladimir Klitschko with Starlink terminals shipped to Kyiv during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
المقالة الرئيسية: Starlink in the Russo-Ukrainian War

Starlink was activated during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, after a request from the Ukrainian government.[25][26] Ukraine's military and government rapidly became dependent on Starlink to maintain Internet access.[27][28][29] Starlink is used by Ukraine for communication, such as keeping in touch with outside world and keeping the energy infrastructure working.[30][31]

The service is also notably used for warfare. Starlink is used for connecting combat drones, naval drones, artillery fire coordination systems and attacks on Russian positions.[32][29] SpaceX has expressed reservations about the offensive use of Starlink by Ukraine beyond military communications and restricted Starlink communication technology for military use on weapon systems.[33] SpaceX however kept most of the service online.[34][35] Its use in attacking Russian targets has been criticized by the Kremlin.[36]

Musk has warned that the service was costing $20 million per month, and a Ukrainian official estimated SpaceX's contributions as over $100 million.[31] In June 2023, the United States Department of Defense signed a contract with SpaceX to finance Starlink use in Ukraine.[37][35]

Israel–Hamas War

Later, in October 2023 after the Israel–Hamas conflict broke out, users shared the hashtag #starlinkforgaza on Elon Musk's social network X (formerly Twitter), demanding he activate Starlink in Gaza after Internet service in the region was lost.[38] Musk answered that Starlink connectivity would be provided for aid groups in Gaza.[39] At the end of November, Musk assured that the Starlink service would only be provided for Gaza with the approval of the government of Israel.[40]

Availability and regulatory approval by country

Starlink availability by country
Starlink availability by country
  Approved and activated
  Activated
  Unknown

In order to offer satellite services in any nation-state, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) regulations and long-standing international treaties require that landing rights be granted by each country jurisdiction, and within a country, by the national communications regulators. As a result, even though the Starlink network has near-global reach at latitudes below approximately 60°, broadband services can only be provided in 40 countries as of September 2022.[41] SpaceX can also have business operation and economic considerations that may make a difference in which countries Starlink service is offered, in which order, and how soon. For example, SpaceX formally requested authorization for Canada only in June 2020,[42] the Canadian regulatory authority approved it in November 2020,[43] and SpaceX rolled out service two months later, in January 2021.[44] As of September 2022, Starlink services were on offer in 40 countries,[41] with applications pending regulatory approval in many more.[45]

Starlink satellites passing over the Swiss night sky as seen from Mürren.

Canada was the first outside country to approve the service with the Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada announcing regulatory approval for the Starlink low Earth orbit satellite constellation on 6 November 2020.[43]

In May 2022, Starlink entered the Philippine market, as the company's first deployment in Asia, due to a landmark legislative change (RA 11659, Public Services Act) about all-foreign allowance of company ownership in regards to utility entities such as internet and telco companies. Starlink was able to obtain a provisional permission from the country's Department of Information and Communication Technologies (DICT), National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) and Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and soon began commercial services, aimed at regions with lower internet connectivity.[46]

In August 2022, SpaceX secured its first contract for services in the passenger shipping industry. Royal Caribbean Group has added Starlink internet to Freedom of the Seas and plans to offer the service on 50 ships under its Royal Caribbean International, Celebrity Cruises, and Silversea Cruises brands by March 2023.[47] Starlink services on private jet charter flights in the US by JSX are expected to begin in late 2022, and Hawaiian Airlines has contracted to provide "Starlink services on transpacific flights to and from Hawaii in 2023."[47]

In June 2023, a license to offer internet services in Zambia was granted to Starlink by the Zambian Government through its Electronic Government Division – SMART Zambia, following the completion of many prosperous trial projects throughout the nation.[48][49][50] In October 2023, Starlink officially went live in Zambia.[51][52][53]

In July 2023, the Mongolian government issued two licenses to SpaceX to provide internet access in the country.[54]

Japan's major mobile provider, KDDI, announced a partnership with SpaceX to begin offering in 2022 expanded connectivity for its rural mobile customers via 1,200 remote mobile towers.[55]

On 25 April 2022, Hawaiian Airlines announced an agreement with Starlink to provide free internet access on its aircraft, becoming the first airline to use Starlink.[56] By July 2022, Starlink internet service was available in 36 countries and 41 markets.[57]

In May 2022, it was announced that regulatory approval had been granted for Nigeria, Mozambique,[58] and the Philippines.[59][60] In the Philippines, commercial availability began on February 22, 2023.[61]

In September 2022, trials began at McMurdo Station in Antarctica and from December 2022 on field missions. Antarctica has no ground stations, so polar-orbiting satellites with optical interlinks are used to connect to ground stations in South America, New Zealand, and Australia.[62][63]

In September 2023, the US-based United Against Nuclear Iran started donating subscriptions and terminals to Iranians to allow them to circumvent Iran's internet blackout.[64][65]

In September 2023, it was reported that Starlink licensure in India was imminent after Starlink was able to meet all regulatory requirements but after licensure Starlink will still be required to apply for spectrum allocation in order to provide service.[66][67] SpaceX had earlier sold 5000 Starlink preorders in India,[68] and in 2021 had announced that Sanjay Bhargava, who had worked with Musk as part of a team that founded electronic payment firm PayPal, would head the tech billionaire entrepreneur's Starlink satellite broadband venture in India.[69] Three months later, Bhargava resigned "for personal reasons" following the Indian government ordering SpaceX to halt selling preorders for Starlink service until SpaceX gains regulatory approval for providing satellite internet services in the country.[68]

Countries
# Continent Country/Territory Debut Notes
1 North America  الولايات المتحدة
 پورتو ريكو
 الجزر العذراء الأمريكية
 گوام
 جزر ماريانا الشمالية 		Limited trials August 2020,[70] public beta November 2020[71] Service expanded to Guam and Northern Mariana Islands in November 2023[72]
2 North America  كندا January 2021[44]
3 Europe  المملكة المتحدة
 جزر پيتكيرن 		January 2021[73] Free trial in Pitcairn Islands started in November 2022.[74]
4 Europe  ألمانيا March 2021[75]
5 Oceania  نيوزيلندا April 2021[76]
6 Oceania  أستراليا April 2021[77]
7 Europe  فرنسا
 سانت مارتن
 سان بارتليمي
 گوادلوپ
 مارتينيك 		Original debut May 2021,[78][79] Revoked April 2022,[80] Re-approved June 2022[81] Approval originally given in February 2021 but the Conseil d'État annulled that Decision on 5 April 2022 due to lack of public consultation.[80] Approval was given again after consultation was completed on 2 June 2022.[81] Service expanded to Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy in July 2022.[57] Service expanded to Martinique and Guadeloupe in September 2022.[82]
8 Europe  النمسا May 2021[78]
9 Europe  هولندا May 2021[83]
10 Europe  بلجيكا May 2021[84]
11 Europe  أيرلندا Limited trials April 2021,[85] public beta July 2021[86]
12 Europe  الدنمارك July 2021[87]
13 Europe  الپرتغال August 2021[88]
14 Europe   سويسرا August 2021[89]
15 South America  تشيلي
 جزيرة عيد الفصح 		Limited trials July 2021,[90] public beta September 2021[91] Service expanded to Easter Island in November 2022.[92]
16 Europe  پولندا September 2021[93]
17 Europe  إيطاليا September 2021[94]
18 Europe  التشيك September 2021[95]
19 Europe  السويد October 2021[96]
20 North America  المكسيك November 2021[97]
21 Europe  كرواتيا November 2021[98]
22 Europe  لتوانيا December 2021[99][100]
23 Europe  إسپانيا January 2022[101]
24 Europe  سلوڤاكيا January 2022[102]
25 Europe  سلوڤنيا January 2022[103]
26 Oceania  تونگا February 2022[104] Emergency relief provided one month after the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami, ground station established in neighboring Fiji for six months
27 South America  البرازيل January 2022[105][106]
28 Europe  بلغاريا February 2022[107]
29 Europe  أوكرانيا February 2022[25][108][26] Initially supplied as emergency relief in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. See Starlink satellite services in Ukraine.
30 Europe  رومانيا April 2022[109]
31 Europe  اليونان April 2022[110]
32 Europe  لاتڤيا April 2022[14]
33 Europe  المجر May 2022[111]
34 Europe  شمال مقدونيا June 2022[112]
35 Europe  لوكسمبورگ July 2022[57]
36 North America  جمهورية الدومنيكان July 2022[113]
37 Europe  مولدوڤا August 2022[114]
38 Europe  إستونيا August 2022[115]
39 Europe  النرويج August 2022[116]
40 Europe  مالطا September 2022[41]
41 Asia  إيران September 2022[117] Activated in response to Iranian censorship as a result of Iranian protests against compulsory hijab.[118]
42 Asia  اليابان October 2022[119] First in Asia[contradictory].
43 North America  جامايكا October 2022[120]
44 Europe  فنلندا November 2022[121]
45 South America  پيرو January 2023[122]
46 Africa  نيجريا January 2023[123] First in Africa.
47 South America  كولومبيا January 2023[124]
48 Europe  آيسلندا February 2023[125]
49 Africa  رواندا February 2023[126]
50 Asia  الفلپين February 2023[127][128]
51 North America  هايتي March 2023[129]
52 South America  الإكوادور March 2023[130]
53 North America  السلڤادور April 2023[131]
54 North America  پنما May 2023[132]
55 Africa  موزمبيق June 2023[133]
56 South America  ترنيداد وتوباگو June 2023[134]
57 Europe  قبرص July 2023[135]
58 North America  گواتيمالا July 2023[136]
59 Africa  كنيا July 2023[137]
60 Asia  ماليزيا July 2023[138]
61 Africa  ملاوي July 2023[139]
62 North America  البهاماز August 2023[140]
63 Africa  زامبيا October 2023[141]
64 Europe  جورجيا November 2023[142]
65 Africa  بنين November 2023[143]
66 Asia  المالديڤ November 2023[144]
67 North America  كوستاريكا November 2023[145]


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Technology

Satellite hardware

The Internet communication satellites were expected to be in the smallsat-class of 100 to 500 kg (220 to 1,100 lb)-mass, and were intended to be in low Earth orbit (LEO) at an altitude of approximately 1,100 km (680 mi), according to early public releases of information in 2015. In the event, the first large deployment of 60 satellites in May 2019 were 227 kg (500 lb)[18] and SpaceX decided to place the satellites at a relatively low 550 km (340 mi), due to concerns about the space environment.[146] Initial plans اعتبارا من يناير 2015 were for the constellation to be made up of approximately 4,000 cross-linked[147] satellites, more than twice as many operational satellites as were in orbit in January 2015.[7]

The satellites will employ optical inter-satellite links and phased array beam-forming and digital processing technologies in the Ku and Ka microwave bands (super high frequency [SHF] to extremely high frequency [EHF]), according to documents filed with the U.S. FCC.[148][149] While specifics of the phased array technologies have been disclosed as part of the frequency application, SpaceX enforced confidentiality regarding details of the optical inter-satellite links.[150] Early satellites were launched without laser links. The inter-satellite laser links were successfully tested in late 2020.[151][152]

The satellites will be mass-produced, at a much lower cost per unit of capability than previously existing satellites. Musk said, "We're going to try and do for satellites what we've done for rockets."[153] "In order to revolutionize space, we have to address both satellites and rockets."[7] "Smaller satellites are crucial to lowering the cost of space-based Internet and communications".[154]

In February 2015, SpaceX asked the FCC to consider future innovative uses of the Ka-band spectrum before the FCC commits to 5G communications regulations that would create barriers to entry, since SpaceX is a new entrant to the satellite communications market. The SpaceX non-geostationary orbit communications satellite constellation will operate in the high-frequency bands above 24 GHz, "where steerable Earth station transmit antennas would have a wider geographic impact, and significantly lower satellite altitudes magnify the impact of aggregate interference from terrestrial transmissions".[155]

Internet traffic via a geostationary satellite has a minimum theoretical round-trip latency of at least 477 milliseconds (ms; between user and ground gateway), but in practice, current satellites have latencies of 600 ms or more. Starlink satellites are orbiting at 1⁄105 to 1⁄30 of the height of geostationary orbits, and thus offer more practical Earth-to-sat latencies of around 25 to 35 ms, comparable to existing cable and fiber networks.[156] The system will use a peer-to-peer protocol claimed to be "simpler than IPv6", it will also incorporate end-to-end encryption natively.[157]

Starlink satellites use Hall-effect thrusters with krypton or argon gas as the reaction mass[18][158] for orbit raising and station keeping.[159] Krypton Hall thrusters tend to exhibit significantly higher erosion of the flow channel compared to a similar electric propulsion system operated with xenon, but krypton is much more abundant and has a lower market price.[160] SpaceX claims that its 2nd generation thruster using argon has 2.4x the thrust and 1.5x the specific impulse of the krypton fueled thruster.[161]

User terminals

SpaceX board member Steve Jurvetson holding a Starlink user terminal in June 2020

The system does not directly connect from its satellites to handsets (like the constellations from Iridium, Globalstar, Thuraya and Inmarsat). Instead, it is linked to flat user terminals the size of a pizza box, which have phased array antennas and track the satellites. The terminals can be mounted anywhere, as long as they can see the sky.[147] This includes fast-moving objects like trains.[162] Photographs of the customer antennas were first seen on the internet in June 2020, supporting earlier statements by SpaceX CEO Musk that the terminals would look like a "UFO on a stick. Starlink Terminal has motors to self-adjust optimal angle to view sky".[163] The antenna is known internally as "Dishy McFlatface".[164][165]

In October 2020, SpaceX launched a paid-for beta service in the U.S. called "Better Than Nothing Beta", charging $499 (Error when using {{Inflation}}: |index=US-GDP (parameter 1) not a recognized index.) for a user terminal, with an expected service of "50 Mbps to 150 Mbps and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms over the next several months".[166] From January 2021, the paid-for beta service was extended to other continents, starting with the United Kingdom.[167]

A larger, high-performance version of the antenna is available for use with the Starlink Business service tier.[168]

In September 2020, SpaceX applied for permission to put terminals on 10 of its ships with the expectation of entering the maritime market in the future.[169]

In August 2022 and in response to an open invitation from SpaceX to have the terminal examined by the security community, security specialist Lennert Wouters presented several technical architecture details about the then-current starlink terminals: the main control unit of the dish is a STMicroelectronics custom designed chip code-named Catson which is a quad-core ARM Cortex-A53-based control processor running the Linux kernel and booted using U-Boot. The main processor uses several other custom chips such as a digital beam former named Shiraz and a front-end module named Pulsarad. The main control unit controls an array of digital beamformers. Each beamformer controls 16 front-end modules. In addition the terminal has a GPS receiver, motor controllers, synchronous clock generation and Power over Ethernet circuits, all manufactured by STMicroelectronics.[170]

Ground stations

SpaceX has made applications to the FCC for at least 32 ground stations in United States, and اعتبارا من July 2020 has approvals for five of them (in five states). Till February 2023 Starlink used the Ka-band to connect with ground stations.[171] with the launch of v2 mini they added frequencies in the E band range.[172]

A typical ground station right now[when?] has nine 2.86 m antennas in a 400 m2 fenced in area.[173]

According to their filing, SpaceX's ground stations would also be installed on-site at Google data-centers world-wide.[174]

Satellite revisions

MicroSat

MicroSat-1a and MicroSat-1b were originally slated to be launched into 625 km (388 mi) circular orbits at approximately 86.4° inclination, and to include panchromatic video imager cameras to film images of Earth and the satellite.[175] The two satellites, "MicroSat-1a" and "MicroSat-1b" were meant to be launched together as secondary payloads on one of the Iridium NEXT flights, but they were instead used for ground-based tests.[176]

Tintin

At the time of the June 2015 announcement, SpaceX had stated plans to launch the first two demonstration satellites in 2016,[177] but the target date was subsequently moved out to 2018.[178] SpaceX began flight testing their satellite technologies in 2018[178] with the launch of two test satellites. The two identical satellites were called MicroSat-2a and MicroSat-2b[179] during development but were renamed Tintin A and Tintin B upon orbital deployment on 22 February 2018. The satellites were launched by a Falcon 9 rocket, and they were piggy-pack payloads launching with the Paz satellite.

Tintin A and B were inserted into a 514 km (319 mi) orbit. Per FCC filings,[180] they were intended to raise themselves to an 1,125 km (699 mi) orbit, the operational altitude for Starlink LEO satellites per the earliest regulatory filings, but stayed close to their original orbits. SpaceX announced in November 2018 that they would like to operate an initial shell of about 1600 satellites in the constellation at about 550 km (340 mi) orbital altitude, at an altitude similar to the orbits Tintin A and B stayed in.[13]

The satellites orbit in a circular low Earth orbit at about 500 km (310 mi) altitude[181] in a high-inclination orbit for a planned six to twelve-month duration. The satellites communicate with three testing ground stations in Washington State and California for short-term experiments of less than ten minutes duration, roughly daily.[177][182]

v0.9 (test)

The 60 Starlink v0.9 satellites, launched in May 2019, have the following characteristics:[18]


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v1.0 (operational)

The Starlink v1.0 satellites, launched since November 2019, have the following additional characteristics:[بحاجة لمصدر]

  • 100% of all components of this design will completely demise, or burn up, in Earth's atmosphere at the end of each satellite's life.[184]
  • Ka-band added[185]
  • Mass: 260 kg (570 lb)
  • One of them, numbered 1130 and called DarkSat, had its albedo reduced using a special coating but the method was abandoned due to thermal issues and IR reflectivity.[186][187]
  • All satellites launched since the ninth launch at August 2020 have visors to block sunlight from reflecting from parts of the satellite to reduce its albedo further.[188][189][190][191]

v1.5 (operational)

The Starlink v1.5 satellites, launched since 24 January 2021, have the following additional characteristics:

  • Lasers for inter-satellite communication[192]
  • Mass: ~295 kg (650 lb)
  • Visors that blocked sunlight were removed from satellites launched from September 2021 onwards.[193]

Starshield (operational)

These are satellites buses with two solar arrays derived from Starlink v1.5 and v2.0 for military use and can host classified government or military payloads.[194]

v2.0 (initial deployment)

SpaceX was preparing for the production of Starlink v2.0 satellites by early 2021.[195] According to Musk, Starlink v2.0 satellites will be "... an order of magnitude better than Starlink 1" in terms of communications bandwidth.[196]

SpaceX hoped to begin launching Starlink v2.0 in 2022. اعتبارا من مايو 2022, SpaceX had said publicly that the satellites of second-generation (Gen2) constellation would need to be launched on Starship, as they are too large to fit inside a Falcon 9 fairing.[172] However, in August 2022, SpaceX made formal regulatory filings with the FCC that indicated they would build satellites of the second-generation (Gen2) constellation in two different, but technically identical, form factors: one with the physical structures tailored to launching on Falcon 9, and one tailored for the launching on Starship.[197][198] Starlink v2.0 is both larger and heavier than Starlink v1 satellites.

Starlink second-generation satellites planned for launch on Starship have the following characteristics:[199][198]

  • Lasers for inter-satellite communication[200]
  • Mass: ~1,250 kg (2,760 lb)
  • Length: ~7 m (23 ft)
  • Further improvements to reduce its brightness, including the use of a dielectric mirror film.[201]
  • On 2,016 of the initially licensed 7,500 satellites:[202] Gen2 Starlink satellites will also include an approximately 25 square meter antenna that would allow T-Mobile subscribers to be able to communicate directly via satellite through their regular mobile devices.[197] It will be implemented via a German-licensed hosted payload developed together with SpaceX's subsidiary Swarm Technologies and T-Mobile.[202] This hardware is supplemental to the existing Ku-band and Ka-band systems, and inter-satellite laser links, that have been on the first generation satellites launching as of mid-2022.[بحاجة لمصدر]

In October 2022, SpaceX revealed configuration of early v2.0s to be launched on Falcon 9.[203] In May 2023, SpaceX introduced two more form factors with direct-to-cellular capability.[204]

  • Bus F9-1, 303 kg mass, having roughly the same dimensions and mass as V1.5 satellites. Deployed in Group 5 (see constellation design section).[205]
  • Bus F9-2 (sometimes called "V2 mini"[197]), 800 kg mass and measuring 4.1 m (13 ft) by 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) with a total array of 120 m2 (1,300 sq ft). The Solar arrays are 2 in number. It could offer around 3-4 times more usable bandwidth per satellite.[206] They are smaller than Starlink's original ones (and so can be launched on Falcon 9), have four times the capacity to the ground station to increase speed and capacity. This is due to a more efficient array of antennas and the use of radio frequencies in the E band range.[172] Deployed in Group 6 and 7 (see constellation design section).[207]
  • Bus F9-3 (planned), F9-2 with direct-to-cellular capability. The bus length increased to 7.4 m (24 ft). Mass increased to 970 kg.[204]
  • Bus Starship-1 (planned), 2000 kg mass and measuring 6.4 m (21 ft) by 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) with a total array of 257 m2 (2,770 sq ft).
  • Bus Starship-2 (planned), Starship-1 with direct-to-cellular capability. The bus length increased to 10.1 m (33 ft).[204]

The launch of F9-3 test satellites with direct-to-cellular capability is planned in December 2023 pending FCC approval.[208]

Launches

للمزيد من المعلومات: List of Starlink launches

Between February 2018 and February 2023, SpaceX successfully launched 4002 Starlink satellites into orbit, including prototypes and satellites that later failed or were de-orbited before entering operational service.[209] In March 2020, SpaceX reported producing six satellites per day.[210]

The deployment of the first 1,440 satellites was planned in 72 orbital planes of 20 satellites each,[211] with a requested lower minimum elevation angle of beams to improve reception: 25° rather than the 40° of the other two orbital shells.[13]:17 SpaceX launched the first 60 satellites of the constellation in May 2019 into a 550 km (340 mi) orbit and expected up to six launches in 2019 at that time, with 720 satellites (12 × 60) for continuous coverage in 2020.[212][213]

Starlink satellites are also planned to launch on Starship, an under-development rocket of SpaceX with a much larger payload capability. The initial announcement included plans to launch 400 Starlink (version 1.0) satellites at a time.[214] Current plans now call for Starship to be the only launch vehicle to be used to launch fewer of the much larger Starlink version 2.0.

The Starlink constellation, phase 1, first orbital shell: 72 orbits with 22 each, therefore 1584 satellites at 550 km altitude

Constellation design and status

In March 2017, SpaceX filed plans with the FCC to field a second orbital shell of more than 7,500 "V-band satellites in non-geosynchronous orbits to provide communications services" in an electromagnetic spectrum that has not previously been heavily employed for commercial communications services. Called the "Very-low Earth orbit (VLEO) constellation",[215] it was to have comprised 7,518 satellites that were to orbit at just 340 km (210 mi) altitude,[216] while the smaller, originally planned group of 4,425 satellites would operate in the Ka- and Ku-bands and orbit at 1,200 km (750 mi) altitude.[215][216] By 2022, SpaceX had withdrawn plans to field the 7518-satellite V-band system, superseding it with a more comprehensive design for a second-generation (Gen2) Starlink network.[217]

In November 2018, SpaceX received U.S. regulatory approval to deploy 7,518 V-band broadband satellites, in addition to the 4,425 approved earlier;[218][219] however, the V-band plans were subsequently withdrawn by 2022.[217] At the same time, SpaceX also made new regulatory filings with the U.S. FCC to request the ability to alter its previously granted license in order to operate approximately 1,600 of the 4,425 Ka-/Ku-band satellites approved for operation at 1,150 km (710 mi) in a "new lower shell of the constellation" at only 550 km (340 mi)[220] orbital altitude.[13][221] These satellites would effectively operate in a third orbital shell, a 550 km (340 mi) orbit, while the higher and lower orbits at approximately 1,200 km (750 mi) and approximately 340 km (210 mi) would be used only later, once a considerably larger deployment of satellites becomes possible in the later years of the deployment process. The FCC approved the request in April 2019, giving approval to place nearly 12,000 satellites in three orbital shells: initially approximately 1,600 in a 550 km (340 mi) – altitude shell, and subsequently placing approximately 2,800 Ku- and Ka-band spectrum satellites at 1,150 km (710 mi) and approximately 7,500 V-band satellites at 340 km (210 mi).[8] In total, nearly 12,000 satellites were planned to be deployed, with (as of 2019) a possible later extension to 42,000.[222]

In February 2019, a sister company of SpaceX, SpaceX Services Inc., filed a request with the FCC to receive a license for the operation of up to a million fixed satellite Earth stations that would communicate with its non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) satellite Starlink system.[223]

In June 2019, SpaceX applied to the FCC for a license to test up to 270 ground terminals – 70 nationwide across the United States and 200 in Washington state at SpaceX employee homes[224][225] – and aircraft-borne antenna operation from four distributed United States airfields; as well as five ground-to-ground test locations.[226][227]

On 15 October 2019, the United States FCC submitted filings to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) on SpaceX's behalf to arrange spectrum for 30,000 additional Starlink satellites to supplement the 12,000 Starlink satellites already approved by the FCC.[228] That month, Musk publicly tested the Starlink network by using an Internet connection routed through the network to post a first tweet to social media site Twitter.[229]

First Generation

Contains all v0.9 and first generation satellites. Tintin A and Tintin B as test satellites are not included.

Phase Group designation Orbital shells Orbital planes[230] Committed completion date Deployed satellites
4 November 2023[231]
Altitude
(km) 		Authorized satellites Incli­nation Count Satellites
per 		Half Full Active Decaying/
deorbited
1[232] Group 1[233] 550 km (340 mi) 1584[234] 53.0° 72 22 March 2024 (aimed)
1 August 2022 (achieved)[235] 		March 2027 1445 280
Group 2 570 km (350 mi) 720 70° 36 20 403 5
Group 3[236] 560 km (350 mi) 348 97.6° 6 58 233 10
Group 4 540 km (340 mi) 1584 53.2° 72 22 1566 71
560 km (350 mi) 172 97.6° 4 43 0
2[237][ب] 335.9 km (208.7 mi)[ب] 2493 42.0° November 2024 November 2027 0
340.8 km (211.8 mi)[ب] 2478 48.0° 0
345.6 km (214.7 mi)[ب] 2547 53.0° 0
  1. ^ Falcon 9 first-stage boosters are designated with a construction serial number and an optional flight number when reused, e.g. B1021.1 and B1021.2 represent the two flights of booster B1021. Launches using reused boosters are denoted with a recycled symbol ♺.
  2. ^ أ ب ت ث SpaceX plans to abandon the approved phase 2 configuration.

Early designs had all phase 1 satellites in altitudes of around 1,100–1,300 km (680–810 mi). SpaceX initially requested to lower the first 1584 satellites, and in April 2020 requested to lower all other higher satellite orbits to about 550 km (340 mi).[238][239] In April 2020, SpaceX modified the architecture of the Starlink network. SpaceX submitted an application to the FCC proposing to operate more satellites in lower orbits in the first phase than the FCC previously authorized. The first phase will still include 1,440 satellites in the first shell orbiting at 550 km (340 mi) in planes inclined 53.0°,[211] with no change to the first shell of the constellation launched largely in 2020.[240] SpaceX also applied in the United States for use of the E-band in their constellation[241] The FCC approved the application in April 2021.[242][243][244]

On 24 January 2021 SpaceX released a new group of 10 Starlink satellites, the first Starlink satellites in polar orbits. The launch surpassed ISRO's record of launching the most satellites in one mission (143), taking to 1,025 the cumulative number of satellites deployed for Starlink to that date.[245][246]

On 3 February 2022, 49 satellites were launched as Starlink Group 4-7. A G2-rated geomagnetic storm occurred on 4 February, caused the atmosphere to warm and density at the low deployment altitudes to increase. Predictions were that up to 40 of the 49 satellites might be lost due to drag.[247] After the event, 38 satellites reentered the atmosphere by 12 February while the remaining 11 were able to raise their orbits and avoid loss due to the storm.[248][249]

In March 2023 SpaceX submitted an application to add V-band payload to the second generation satellites rather than fly phase 2 V-band satellites as originally planned and authorized.[250] The request is subject to FCC approval.

Second Generation

Phase Group designation Orbital shells Orbital planes[251][أ] Committed completion date Deployed satellites
4 November 2023[231]
Altitude
(km) 		Planned satellites Incli­nation Count Satellites
per 		Half Full Active Decaying/
deorbited
1[ب] Group 5[231] 530 km (330 mi) 3360[ب] 43°[231] 28 120 1 December 2028[253] 1 December 2031[253] 692 7
Group 6[231] 559 km (347 mi)[254] 539 19
Group 7[231] 525 km (326 mi) 3360[ب] 53° 28 120 127 0
535 km (332 mi) 3360[ب] 33° 28 120
  1. ^ SpaceX abandoned configuration 2 proposed in the amendment[252]
  2. ^ أ ب ت ث The FCC limited phase 1 to 7,500 satellites across 3 shells.[253]
Starlink 12 Feb 2023 launch plus 19 hours

With the unknown of when Starship will be able to launch the second generation satellites, SpaceX modified the original V2 blueprint into a smaller, more compact one named "V2 Mini". This adjustment, allowed Falcon 9 to transport these satellites, though not as many, into orbit.[255] The first set of 21 of these satellites was launched on February 27, 2023. SpaceX committed to reducing debris by keeping the Starlink tension rods, which hold the V2 mini-satellites together, attached to the Falcon 9 second stage. These tension rods were discarded into orbit while launching an earlier versions of Starlink satellites.[256][استشهاد ناقص] Observations confirm these V2 mini-satellites host two solar panels like the Starship V2 satellites.[257]

Impact on astronomy

Signal pollution in a 333-second exposure image taken from the Blanco four-meter (13') telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in November 2019.
Starlink in Tübingen, Germany
Starlink 1619 seen by the Hubble Space Telescope
Timelapse of recently deployed satellites[258][259]

The planned large number of satellites has been met with criticism from the astronomical community because of concerns over light pollution.[260][261][262] Astronomers claim that the number of visible satellites will outnumber visible stars and that their brightness in both optical and radio wavelengths will severely impact scientific observations. While astronomers can schedule observations to avoid pointing where satellites currently orbit, it is "getting more difficult" as more satellites come online.[263] The International Astronomical Union (IAU), National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), and Square Kilometre Array Organization (SKAO) have released official statements expressing concern on the matter.[264][265][266]

On 20 November 2019, the four-meter (13') Blanco telescope of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) recorded strong signal loss and the appearance of 19 white lines on a DECam shot (right image). This image noise was correlated to the transit of a Starlink satellite train, launched a week earlier.[267]

SpaceX representatives and Musk have claimed that the satellites will have minimal impact, being easily mitigated by pixel masking and image stacking.[268] However, professional astronomers have disputed these claims based on initial observation of the Starlink v0.9 satellites on the first launch, shortly after their deployment from the launch vehicle.[269][270][271][272] In later statements on Twitter, Musk stated that SpaceX will work on reducing the albedo of the satellites and will provide on-demand orientation adjustments for astronomical experiments, if necessary.[273][274] One Starlink satellite (Starlink 1130 / DarkSat) launched with an experimental coating to reduce its albedo. The reduction in g-band magnitude is 0.8 magnitude (55%).[275][276] Despite these measures, astronomers found that the satellites were still too bright, thus making DarkSat essentially a "dead end".[22]

On 17 April 2020, SpaceX wrote in an FCC filing that it would test new methods of mitigating light pollution, and also provide access to satellite tracking data for astronomers to "better coordinate their observations with our satellites".[277][278] On 27 April 2020, Musk announced that the company would introduce a new sunshade designed to reduce the brightness of Starlink satellites.[277] اعتبارا من 15 أكتوبر 2020 (2020-10-15), over 200 Starlink satellites had a sunshade. An October 2020 analysis found them to be only marginally fainter than DarkSat.[279] A January 2021 study pinned the brightness at 31% of the original design.[280]

According to a May 2021 study, "A large number of fast-moving transmitting stations (i.e. satellites) will cause further interference. New analysis methods could mitigate some of these effects, but data loss is inevitable, increasing the time needed for each study and limiting the overall amount of science done".[281]

In February 2022, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) established a center to help astronomers deal with the adverse effects of satellite constellations such as Starlink. Work will include the development of software tools for astronomers, advancement of national and international policies, community outreach and work with industry on relevant technologies.[282]

In June 2022, the IAU released a website for astronomers to deal with some adverse effects via satellite tracking. This will enable astronomers to be able to track satellites to be able to avoid and time them for minimal impact on current work.[283]

The first batch of Generation 2 spacecraft was launched in February 2023. These satellites are referred to as "Mini" because they are smaller than the full-sized Gen 2 spacecraft that will come later. SpaceX uses brightness mitigation for Gen 2 that includes a mirror-like surface which reflects sunlight back into space and they orient the solar panels so that observers on the ground only see the dark sides.[284] The Minis are fainter than Gen 1 spacecraft despite being four times as large according to an observational study published in June 2023, being 19% as bright as Gen 1 when placed in the final "brightness-mitigated" orbit. Minis appear 12 times brighter before they reach the target orbit.[285]

In October 2023 research published in "Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters" had reportedly found that Starlink satellites were "leaking radio signals" finding that at the site of the future Square Kilometer Array radio emissions from Starlink satellites were brighter than any natural source in the sky.[286] The paper concluded that these emissions will be "detrimental to key SKA science goals without future mitigation".[287]

Increased risk of satellite collision

The large number of satellites employed by Starlink may create the long-term danger of space debris resulting from placing thousands of satellites in orbit and the risk of causing a satellite collision, potentially triggering a phenomenon known as Kessler syndrome.[288][289] SpaceX has said that most of the satellites are launched at a lower altitude, and failed satellites are expected to deorbit within five years without propulsion.[290][291]

Early in the program, a near-miss occurred when SpaceX did not move a satellite that had a 1 in 1,000 chance of colliding with a European one, ten times higher than ESA's threshold for avoidance maneuvers. SpaceX subsequently fixed an issue with its paging system that had disrupted emails between ESA and SpaceX. ESA said it plans to invest in technologies to automate satellite collision avoidance maneuvers.[292][293] In 2021, Chinese authorities lodged a complaint with the United Nations, saying their space station had performed evasive maneuvers that year to avoid Starlink satellites.[294] In the document, Chinese delegates said that the continuously maneuvering Starlink satellites posed a risk of collision, and two close encounters with the satellites in July and October constituted dangers to the life or health of astronauts aboard the Chinese Tiangong space station.[295][291]

All these reported issues, plus current plans for the extension of the constellation, motivated a formal letter from the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) on behalf of NASA and the NSF, submitted to the FCC on 8 February 2022, warning about the potential impact on low Earth orbit, increased collision risk, impact on science missions, rocket launches, International Space Station and Radio frequencies.[296]

SpaceX satellites will maneuver if the probability of collision is greater than 10−5 (1 in 100,000 chance of collision), as opposed to the industry standard of 10−4 (1 in 10,000 chance of collision).[297] SpaceX has budgeted sufficient propellant to accommodate approximately 5,000 propulsive maneuvers over the life of a Gen2 satellite, including a budget of approximately 350 collision avoidance maneuvers per satellite over that time period.[203]

As of May 2022, the average Starlink satellite had conducted fewer than three collision-avoidance maneuvers over the 6 preceding months.[203] Over 1,700 out of 6,873 maneuvers were performed to avoid Kosmos 1408 debris.[297]

Competition and market effects

انظر أيضاً: Satellite constellation § Communications satellite constellations, and Satellite internet constellation

In addition to the OneWeb constellation, announced nearly concurrently with the SpaceX constellation, a 2015 proposal from Samsung outlined a 4,600-satellite constellation orbiting at 1,400 km (870 mi) that could provide a zettabyte per month capacity worldwide, an equivalent of 200 gigabytes per month for 5 billion users of Internet data,[298][299] but by 2020, no more public information had been released about the Samsung constellation. Telesat announced a smaller 117 satellite constellation in 2015 with plans to deliver initial service in 2021.[300] Amazon announced a large broadband internet satellite constellation in April 2019, planning to launch 3,236 satellites in the next decade in what the company calls "Project Kuiper", a satellite constellation that will work in concert[301] with Amazon's previously announced large network of twelve satellite ground station facilities (the "AWS ground station unit") announced in November 2018.[302]

In February 2015, financial analysts questioned established geosynchronous orbit communications satellite fleet operators as to how they intended to respond to the competitive threat of SpaceX and OneWeb LEO communication satellites.[303] In October 2015, SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell indicated that while development continues, the business case for the long-term rollout of an operational satellite network was still in an early phase.[304]

By October 2017, the expectation for large increases in satellite network capacity from emerging lower-altitude broadband constellations caused market players to cancel some planned investments in new geosynchronous orbit broadband communications satellites.[305]

SpaceX was challenged regarding Starlink in February 2021 when the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA), a political interest group representing traditional rural internet service providers, urged the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to "actively, and aggressively, and thoughtfully vet" the subsidy applications of SpaceX and other broadband providers. At the time, SpaceX had provisionally won $886 million for a commitment to provide service to approximately 643,000 locations in 35 states as part of the Rural Digital Opportunity Fund (RDOF).[306] The NRECA criticisms included that the funding allocation to Starlink would include service to locations—such as Harlem and terminals at Newark Liberty International Airport and Miami International Airport—that are not rural, and because SpaceX was planning to build the infrastructure and serve any customers who request service with or without the FCC subsidy.[306] Additionally, Jim Matheson, chief executive officer of the NRECA voiced concern about technologies that had not yet been proven to meet the high speeds required for the award category. Starlink was specifically criticized for being still in beta testing and for unproven technology.[307]

While Starlink is deployed worldwide, it has encountered trademark conflicts in some countries such as Mexico.[308]

Similar or competitive systems

المقالة الرئيسية: Satellite internet constellation and Satellite constellation § Two-way communication

معدات السواتل

كان من المتوقع أن تكون السواتل للاتصالات عبر الإنترنت في من فئة السواتل المصغرة ككتلة 100-to-500 kg (220-to-1,100 lb)، وكان من المفترض أن تكون ضمن مدار أرضي منخفض (LEO) على ارتفاع تقريباً 1,100 kilometers (680 mi)، وفقاً للإصدارات العامة الأولية للمعلومات في عام 2015. في هذا الحدث، كان أول نشر كبير لـ 60 ساتل في مايو 2019 227 kilograms (500 lb)[18] وقد قررت سپيس‌إكس وضع السواتل عند 550 kilometers (340 mi) المنخفض نسبياً، بسبب مخاوف بشأن البيئة الفضائية.[312]كانت الخطط الأولية اعتبارا من يناير 2015 من أجل المجموعة لتتكون من حوالي 4000 ساتل مرتبط تبادلياً،[147] وهي أكثر من ضعف عدد السواتل العاملة التي كانت في المدار في يناير 2015[7]

انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

المراجع

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  7. ^ أ ب ت ث خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة announcementEvent
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  26. ^ "@elonmusk while you try to colonize Mars — Russia try to occupy Ukraine! While your rockets successfully land from space — Russian rockets attack Ukrainian civil people! We ask you to provide Ukraine with Starlink stations and to address sane Russians to stand". Twitter. 26 February 2022.
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