الهندو-أوروپيون الأوائل

The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a hypothetical prehistoric people of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE), the ancestor of the Indo-European languages according to linguistic reconstruction.

Knowledge of them comes chiefly from that linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from archaeology and archaeogenetics. The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BC. Mainstream scholarship places them in the Pontic–Caspian steppe zone in Eastern Europe (present day Ukraine and Russia). Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BC) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BC), and suggest alternative location hypotheses.

By the early second millennium BC, offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached far and wide across Eurasia, including Anatolia (Hittites), the Aegean (the ancestors of Mycenaean Greece), the north of Europe (Corded Ware culture), the edges of Central Asia (Yamnaya culture), and southern Siberia (Afanasievo culture).

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Culture

المقالة الرئيسية: Proto-Indo-European religion and Proto-Indo-European society

فرضيات أورهايمات

المقالة الرئيسية: الموطن الهندو-أوروپي-الأولي

انظر أيضاً: Indo-European migrations

Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BC; the orange area to 1000 BC.^:30

الأصول من الشرق الأدنى

الفرضية الأرمنية

الفرضية الأرمنية، المبنية على glottalic theory, suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language was spoken during the 4th millennium BC in the Armenian Highland. This Indo-Hittite model does not include the Anatolian languages in its scenario. The phonological peculiarities of PIE proposed in the glottalic theory would be best preserved in the Armenian language and the Germanic languages, the former assuming the role of the dialect which remained in situ, implied to be particularly archaic in spite of its late attestation. Proto-Greek would be practically equivalent to Mycenean Greek and would date to the 17th century BC, closely associating Greek migration to Greece with the Indo-Aryan migration to India at about the same time (viz., Indo-European expansion at the transition to the Late Bronze Age, including the possibility of Indo-European Kassites). The Armenian hypothesis argues for the latest possible date of Proto-Indo-European (sans Anatolian), a full millennium later than the mainstream Kurgan hypothesis. In this, it figures as an opposite to the Anatolian hypothesis, in spite of the geographical proximity of the respective Urheimaten suggested, diverging from the time-frame suggested there by a full three millennia.

Genetics

للمزيد من المعلومات: Genetic history of Europe, Genetic history of South Asia, and Genetic history of the Near East

The rise of archaeogenetic evidence which uses genetic analysis to trace migration patterns also added new elements to the origins puzzle.

Kurgan hypothesis

Yamnaya culture

Near East population

The Near East population were most likely hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHG) c.q. Iran Chalcolithic related people with a CHG-component.

See also

• Archaeogenetics
• Indo-Aryan migration
• Comparative linguistics
• Historical linguistics
• Paleolithic Continuity Theory
• Old European culture
• Proto-Indo-European language
• Proto-Indo-European religion
• Proto-Indo-European society
• Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)
• Origin of the Romanians#Paleogenetics
• Gravettian

Notes

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Sources

Printed sources

• Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (2015-01-01). "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives". Annual Review of Linguistics. 1 (1): 199–219. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812. ISSN 2333-9683.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Haak, W.; Lazaridis, I.; Patterson, N.; Rohland, N.; Mallick, S.; Llamas, B.; Brandt, G.; Nordenfelt, S.; Harney, E.; Stewardson, K.; Fu, Q.; Mittnik, A.; Bánffy, E.; Economou, C.; Francken, M.; Friederich, S.; Pena, R. G.; Hallgren, F.; Khartanovich, V.; Khokhlov, A.; Kunst, M.; Kuznetsov, P.; Meller, H.; Mochalov, O.; Moiseyev, V.; Nicklisch, N.; Pichler, S. L.; Risch, R.; Rojo Guerra, M. A.; et al. (2015). "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe". Nature. 522 (7555): 207–211. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. bioRxiv 013433 . doi:10.1038/nature14317. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Jones, Eppie R. (2015). "Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians". Nature Communications. 6: 8912. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.8912J. doi:10.1038/ncomms9912. PMC 4660371. PMID 26567969.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Lazaridis, Iosif (2014). "Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans". Nature. 513 (7518): 409–413. arXiv:1312.6639. Bibcode:2014Natur.513..409L. doi:10.1038/nature13673. hdl:11336/30563. PMC 4170574. PMID 25230663.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• قالب:Cite biorxiv
• Mallory, J.P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-27616-1 .
• Strazny, Philipp (Ed). (2000), Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (1 ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-1-57958-218-0 
• Watkins, Calvert (2000), "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.), Houghton Mifflin Company 

Web-sources

Further reading

• Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
• Atkinson, Q. D.; Nicholls, G.; Welch, D.; Gray, R. D. (2005). "From Words to Dates: Water into wine, mathemagic or phylogenetic inference?". Transactions of the Philological Society. 103 (2): 193–219. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.2005.00151.x.
• Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi; Seielstad, Mark (2000). Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. pp. 7719–7724. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.15.7719. ISBN 9780140296020. PMC 33682. PMID 9223254.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Gray, Russell D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003). "Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin" (PDF). Nature. 426 (6965): 435–439. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G. doi:10.1038/nature02029. PMID 14647380.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Holm, Hans J. (2007). "The new Arboretum of Indo-European 'Trees'. Can new Algorithms Reveal the Phylogeny and even Prehistory of IE?" Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 14–2:167–214.
• Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500276167.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Piazza, Alberto; Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi (15 April 2006). "Diffusion of Genes and Languages in Human Evolution". In Cangelosi, Angelo; Smith, Andrew D M; Smith, Kenny (eds.). The Evolution of Language: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Evolution of Language (EVOLANG6). Rome: World Scientific. pp. 255–266. Archived from the original on 10 September 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2007.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-02495-7
• Sykes, Brian. (2001) The Seven Daughters of Eve. London: Corgi Books.
• Watkins, Calvert. (1995) How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Wells, Spencer (2002). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

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External links

ابحث عن Appendix:List of Proto-Indo-European roots في
قاموس المعرفة.

ابحث عن Appendix:Proto-Indo-European roots في
قاموس المعرفة.

• Indo-European Roots Index at the Wayback Machine (archived 22 January 2009) from The American Heritage Dictionary
• Kurgan culture
• "The Actual Achievements of Early Indo-Europeans, in Accurate Historical Context (2013)". Beckwith, Christopher I. University of California.

Genetics

• Ancient DNA and the Indo-European Question
• R1a and R1b as markers of the Proto-Indo-European expansion: a review of ancient DNA evidence