مردوخ

(تم التحويل من Marduk)
مردوخ Marduk
تصوير من القرن التاسع ق.م. لتمثال مردوخ، مع تنينه الخادم Mušḫuššu. هذه هي الصورة الرئيسية لعبادة مردوخ في بابل.
المسكنبابل
الكوكبالمشتري
الرمزmušḫuššu
معلومات شخصية
الأبوانإنكي و Damgalnuna
الأشقاءNinsar, Ninkurra, أوتـّو و Ninti
القرينSarpanit
الأنجالNabu
الآلهة المكافئة
المكافئ اليونانيزيوس[1]
المكافئ الرومانيجوپيتر

مردوخ ( Marduk ؛ بالمسمارية: 𒀭𒀫𒌓 dAMAR.UTU; بالسومرية: amar utu.k "عِجل الشمس؛ العجل الشمسي"؛ أو ربما "أمار" اسم عرق من الناس معروفون بإسم الأموريين و "Utu" الكلمة السومرية للشمس و "ك" كما في تكوين الكلمات المنتهية بـ "ياء" الصفة التي تشكل اسماً أو صفة. كما في مر-أوتو-ك "ناس الشمس" والتي تُدعى أيضاً شمش أو شم بالعبرية. السريانية الفصحى: ܡܪܘܿܕ݂ܵܟܼ (مروداك Mrōḏāḵ)،[2] بالعبرية: מְרֹדַךְ، بالعبرية المعاصرة Mərōdaḵ بالطبرية Merōḏaḵ) كان إلهاً من بلاد الرافدين القديمة و patron deity لمدينة بابل. حين أصبحت بابل المركز السياسي لوادي الفرات في زمن حمورابي (القرن 18 ق.م.)، بدأ مردوخ ببطء في البزوغ لمكانة رأس مجمع الآلهة البابلية، وهي المكانة التي حاز عليها بالكامل بحلول النصف الثاني من الألفية الثانية ق.م.[3] في مدينة بابل، كان مردوخ يُعبد في معبد Esagila. يقترن مردوخ بالسلاح المقدس Imhullu. حيوانه الرمزي وخادمه، الذي هزمه مردوخ ذات مرة، هو التنين Mušḫuššu.[4] "مردوك" هي الصيغة البابلية لإسمه.[5]

الاسم مردوخ ربما كان يُنطق مَروتوك.[6] ويُخمَّن أن أصل الاسم مردوك هو مشتق من أمَر-أوتو ("الابن الخالد لأوتو" أو "عجل إله الشمس أوتو").[5] أصل اسم مردوك قد يعكس نسباً أقدم، أو أن له صلات ثقافية بالمدينة القديمة سيپار (التي إلهها كان أوتو Utu)، تعود إلى الألفية الثالثة ق.م.[7]

بحلول عهد حمورابي، أصبح مردوخ مقترناً، من حيث الطالع بكوكب المشتري.[8]

خلفية

الملك البابلي حمورابي (الواقف)، مصوَراً يتلقى شعاره الملكي من مردوخ أو شمش.[9] نقش بارز على الجزء الأعلى من نصب شريعة حمورابي.

Neo-Assyrian texts had become more critical of the Mesopotamian kings. The location of Marduk's statue, whether in Babylon or not, was related to the relationship between foreign kingship and traditional Babylonian religion. In the 12th century BCE, during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I, the statue of Marduk (previously captured by Elamites) was restored to Babylon. The Marduk Prophecy is a prophetic text discussing three occasions on which Babylon is abandoned by Marduk. Some of the details are obscured by a lacuna. The reference to Marduk's reign in Hatti is believed to correspond to the Hittite king Mursili I's capture of Marduk's statue (later returned to Babylon by Kassite king Agum II). Marduk blesses and lives in Assur, a reference to another conflict - this time between the Assyrian king and the Kassite king Kastilias IV, that ended with Marduk's statue being moved from Babylon to Assyria. According to the text Babylon falls into a chaos while Marduk is in Elam, referring to Babylon's defeat at the hands of the Elamite king. It says a new king will arise to renew the temple Ekursagila, most likely a reference to Nebuchadnezzar I's victory over Elam and restoration of Marduk's statue to Babylon.[10]

Marduk's original character is obscure but he was later associated with water, vegetation, judgment, and magic.[11] His consort was the goddess Sarpanit.[12] He was also regarded as the son of Ea[13] (Sumerian Enki) and Damkina,[14] and the heir of Anu, but whatever special traits Marduk may have had were overshadowed by political developments in the Euphrates valley which led to people of the time imbuing him with traits belonging to gods who in an earlier period were recognized as the heads of the pantheon.[15] There are particularly two gods—Ea and Enlil—whose powers and attributes pass over to Marduk.

In the case of Ea, the transfer proceeded peacefully and without effacing the older god. Marduk took over the identity of Asarluhi, the son of Ea and god of magic, and was thus integrated into the pantheon of Eridu, where both Ea and Asarluhi originated. Ea, Marduk's father, voluntarily recognized the superiority of the son and handed over to him the control of humanity. This association of Marduk and Ea, while indicating primarily the passing to Babylon of the religious and political supremacy once enjoyed by Eridu, may also reflect an early dependence of Babylon upon Eridu, not necessarily of a political character but, in view of the spread of culture in the Euphrates valley from the south to the north, the recognition of Eridu as the older centre on the part of the younger one.

جزء من سلسلة مقالات عن
ديانة الرافدين
وحش الفوضى وإله الشمس
وحش الفوضى وإله الشمس
الكائنات الأولية
الآلهة السبع التي تقرر
الآلهة العظام الأخرى
الآلهة الصغرى
أنصاف الآلهة والأبطال
الأرواح والوحوش
حكايات

أواخر العصر البرونزي

While the relationship between Ea and Marduk is marked by harmony and an amicable abdication on the part of the father in favour of his son, Marduk's absorption of the power and prerogatives of Enlil of Nippur came at the expense of the latter's prestige. Babylon became independent in the early 19th century BCE, and was initially a small city state, overshadowed by older and more powerful Mesopotamian states such as Isin, Larsa and Assyria. The rise of "Marduk is closely connected with the political rise of Babylon from city-state to the capital of an empire."[16] Marduk became the supreme god after the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I in the twelfth century, replacing Enlil.[17] Although Nippur and the cult of Enlil enjoyed a period of renaissance during the more than four centuries of Kassite control in Babylonia (c. 1595 BCE–1157 BCE), the definite and permanent triumph of Marduk over Enlil became felt in Babylonia.

During the Kassite reign, the Babylonians were attacked by the Assyrians, who captured the statue of Marduk.[18] Aššur (Ashur), the supreme god in the north, was considered to be the only rival of Marduk,[19] who reigned supreme in the South.[18] While the statue was brought back to Babylon, the Kassite dynasty with a weakened defense fell to the Elamites (1157 BCE), and the statue of Marduk was taken to Susa, the Elam capital.[20] Assyria remained an enemy of the Babylonians until the reign of Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1082–1070 BCE).[20]

The deity of Marduk results in the Enûma Elish, which tells the story of Marduk's birth, heroic deeds and becoming the ruler of the gods. The purpose of this creation myth was to explain how Marduk came to power.[21] This can be viewed as a form of Mesopotamian apologetics. Also included in this document are the fifty names of Marduk that represent everything Marduk symbolizes.[22]

In Enûma Elish, a civil war between the gods was growing to a climactic battle. The Anunnaki gods gathered together to find one god who could defeat the gods rising against them. Marduk, a very young god, answered the call and was promised the position of head god.

To prepare for battle, he makes a bow, fletches arrows, grabs a mace, throws lightning before him, fills his body with flame, makes a net to encircle Tiamat within it, gathers the four winds so that no part of her could escape, creates seven nasty new winds such as the whirlwind and tornado, and raises up his mightiest weapon, the rain-flood. Then he sets out for battle, mounting his storm-chariot drawn by four horses with poison in their mouths. In his lips he holds a spell and in one hand he grasps a herb to counter poison.

First, he challenges the leader of the Anunnaki gods, the dragon of the primordial sea Tiamat, to single combat and defeats her by trapping her with his net, blowing her up with his winds, and piercing her belly with an arrow.

Then, he proceeds to defeat Kingu, who Tiamat put in charge of the army and wore the Tablets of Destiny on his breast, "wrested from him the Tablets of Destiny, wrongfully his", and assumed his new position. Under his reign, humans were created to bear the burdens of life so the gods could be at leisure; the lowly creatures built Marduk a temple in Babylon (from Akkadian bāb-il and Sumerian KÁ.DINGIR both literally translated 'Gate of God'; cf. Genesis 11:9).[23]

Marduk was depicted as a human, often with his symbol the snake-dragon which he had taken over from the god Tishpak. Another symbol that stood for Marduk was the spade.

Babylonian texts talk of the creation of Eridu by the god Marduk as the first city, "the holy city, the dwelling of their [the other gods'] delight". However, Eridu was founded in the 5th millennium BC and Marduk's ascendancy only occurred in the second millennium BC, so this is clearly a revisionist back-dating to inflate the prestige of Marduk.

السمات

Mušḫuššu, a dragon-like creature, was associated with Marduk.

الرمز

His symbol is the spade, and he is associated with the Mušḫuššu, a dragon-like creature from Mesopotamian mythology.[4]

الدور الأصلي

Since sources pertaining to Marduk in the early periods are sparse, Marduk's original role is unknown. However, since Marduk appears in the Abu Salabikh list behind three minor deities whose names suggest a possible connection to the underworld, Johandi suggests that Marduk may have been a minor god associated with the underworld.[24] Similarly, Oshima recently proposed that Marduk may have originally had a role similar to Nergal, which may even explain why the logogram dAMAR.UTU is used in Hittite texts to write the name of the god Šanta,[25] who was similar in nature to Nergal.[26]

In the earlier forerunners to the Udug Hul, where both Marduk and Asalluhi appear together in a passage, Marduk, in contrast to Asalluhi, does not help the victim but instead captures him, either because of his powerlessness or because he simply refused to help.[27] Oshima interpreted the passage as supporting the idea that Marduk's original role was illness and death.[28] Similarly, in Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina, Asalluhi (here identified with Marduk) imposes an evil spell on Sin-iddinam (the king of Larsa), causing him to become sick[29] may reflect that Marduk's power to cause illness extended beyond the dominion of Babylon.[30] However Sommerfield, who previously believed that there was little evidence for Marduk being related to magic,[31] more recently suggested that Marduk was originally a god of incantations before his syncretism with Asalluhi.[32]

Jacobsen suggests that Marduk was originally a storm god, based on the storm imagery in the Enuma Elish, wielding the four winds and storms as weapons and assigning to himself the rain and clouds that came from Tiamat's corpse.[33] Abusch, citing Jacobsen, also believes that Marduk was a storm god, and may have been associated with water and vegetation before joining the pantheon of Eridu, as it is improbable to suppose that all of Marduk's traits with water were taken from the circle of Enki.[34] However, there is no other evidence suggesting that Marduk was originally a local storm god, and the usage of wind and storm as weapons is not limited to storm gods.

Schwemer points to Ninurta, who is not a storm god, as the original model for Marduk using storms, winds and floods as weapons.[35] Schwemer also summarizes that although Marduk has characteristics that overlap with the storm god profile, it does not mean that Marduk or other gods in similar position (such as Ninurta, Martu, Telepinu and Tishpak) are necessarily storm gods.[36]

Marduk's symbol, the spade, may point to him originally being a god of agriculture, or, more likely, a god of canals and, by extension, fertility.[37] Unlike Abusch, Oshima believes that Marduk's association with water came from his association with canals. He is depicted as the supplier of water in Prayer to Marduk no.2, dating to the Kassite period, and was praised as the bringer of water from rivers, seasonal floods, and rains to the fields.[38] Various prayers to Marduk refer to his connection with springs and rivers, and Ashurbanipal applies the epithet "the canal inspector of the heavens and the earth" to Marduk.[39][أ]

غضب ورحمة مردوخ

Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina shares motifs with the Prayer to Marduk no. 1 and Ludlul bel nemeqi, in which Marduk's anger is blamed for a certain ailment affecting the sufferer and can only be remedied when Marduk has mercy and forgives them. In the Prayer to Marduk no. 1, Marduk is asked not to kill his client,[42] and in Ludlul, Marduk is praised for his mercy after forgiving his client.[43] As such, some scholars claim that Marduk was being praised for his wrath,[44] and others claim that Marduk comes off as having "unpredictable mood swings.[45]" Lambert also points to one of Marduk's names in the Enuma Elish, Meršakušu ("savage, yet relenting"), suggests that the Babylonians may have stressed Marduk's mercy so he could be less savage,[46] although Oshima proposes that the Babylonians had to stress both his wrath and mercy to appease him.[43] Others believe that the purpose of the poem was to stress that Marduk's true inner quality was mercy and benevolence.[47] The Prayer to Marduk no.2, on the other hand, praises Marduk's power to heal, which may have been as a result of syncretism with Asalluhi.[48]

Connections to the River Ordeal

Due to being the son of Ea, Marduk had connections with the River Ordeal.[49] Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina also identified Idlurugu (the river ordeal) as the father of Marduk/Asalluhi, in contrast to the standard genealogy.[28]

تراتيل

Marduk features in incantations of the Marduk-Ea type formula, in which the god Ea/Enki engages in dialogue with his son Marduk/Asalluhi. The formula begins with Marduk/Asalluhi noticing a problem and reporting it to his father. Ea reassures his son about his knowledge, then instructs him on the procedures.[50] In later incantations from the First Millennium BC, the priests usually claim to be direct representations of Marduk/Asalluhi, replacing the divine dialogue between father and son,[51] for example in Marduk's Address to the Demons the priest starts by declaring themselves to be Marduk.[52] In Neo-Assyrian Assyria, Marduk was one of the major gods that incantation-prayers were directed at, with only Shamash being invoked more than Marduk.[53] It is difficult to tell whether Marduk originally had a role in incantations before being identified with Asalluhi.[54] Marduk sometimes appears in the Sumerian-Akkadian bilinguals as the Akkadian name for Asalluhi,[50][55] although Marduk and Asalluhi were also attested to appear separately in two different texts, one being the incantation against the evil Udug where Marduk captured the victim instead of helping in contrast to Asalluhi who sought out Enki,[27][54] the other being an incantation against Lamashtu that listed Marduk and Asalluhi separately as deterrence to the demon.[56]

خمسون اسماً

Leonard W. King in The Seven Tablets of Creation (1902) included fragments of god lists which he considered essential for the reconstruction of the meaning of Marduk's name. Franz Böhl in his 1936 study of the fifty names also referred to King's list. Richard Litke (1958) noticed a similarity between Marduk's names in the An:Anum list and those of the Enuma elish, albeit in a different arrangement. The connection between the An:Anum list and the list in Enuma Elish were established by Walther Sommerfeld (1982), who used the correspondence to argue for a Kassite period composition date of the Enuma elish, although the direct derivation of the Enuma elish list from the An:Anum one was disputed in a review by Wilfred Lambert (1984).[57]

الملاحم والأدب

Enuma Elish

المقالة الرئيسية: Enuma Elish

The Enuma Elish, generally believed to have been composed in the Isin II period, details Marduk's rise to power as the king of the gods. There are similarities between the Epic of Creation and the Anzu myth as well as other traditions related to Ninurta.[58] The Tablet of Destinies is a key object in both myths, and Marduk uses largely the same weapons as Ninurta.[59] A ritual tablet mentions how the Epic of Creation would be recited and possibly reenacted during the Akitu festival, on the fourth day of the month of Nisannu.[60] The epic starts off by mentioning Apsu and Tiamat, here the oldest gods, and created a younger generation of the gods. However, Apsu was disturbed by their noisiness and decided to kill them. Ea, however, found out about the plot and kills Apsu and takes his splendour. Later Marduk was born to Ea and Damkina, and already at birth he was special. Tiamat then decides to wage war against the younger generation of the gods, giving Kingu the Tablet of Destinies and appointing him as the commander. Marduk volunteers to do battle against Tiamat and defeats her. The world was fashioned from Tiamat's corpse with Babylon as the center, and Marduk assumes kingship and receives his fifty names. The fifty names taken was based on the An = Anum god list, the columnar arrangement removed and slotted in.[61] One of his titles, bēl mātāti (king of the lands) originally belonged to Enlil, who was conspicuously missing from the epic except when he gave this title to Marduk[62]

Ludlul bel nemeqi

المقالة الرئيسية: Ludlul bel nemeqi

Also known as the "Babylonian Job[63]", the poem describes the narrator's suffering caused by Marduk's anger, causing him to lose his job and to experience hostility from his friends and family. Diviners were incapable of helping him and his personal protective spirits and gods also did not come to help. He claims that nobody understood the actions of the gods, and despite the narrator's protests of innocence and that he had always been pious to the gods and never abandoned him, he quickly became ill and was on death's bed. Then, in a series of dreams, he met a young man, an incantation priest that purified him, a young woman with a godlike appearance who came to say that his suffering had ended, and an incantation priest from Babylon. Afterwards, the narrator praises Marduk's mercy[64] which was the main point of the text despite the expressions of Marduk's anger.[65]

Epic of Erra

In the Erra epic, Erra convinced Marduk to leave Esagil and to go to the netherworld, leaving Erra to become king. Afterwards, Erra wreaks havoc on all the cities and causes instability. Marduk came back and lamented the state of Babylon. Unlike the Enuma Elish which championed Marduk as the bringer of peace and stability, Marduk is here the one who brought instability by leaving his seat, thus bringing darkness upon the world.[66] He also indirectly brought war by yielding to Erra.[67]

Marduk Ordeal

Written in the Assyrian dialect,[68] versions of the so-called Marduk Ordeal Text are known from Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh.[69] Using sceneries and language familiar to the procession of the Akitu Festival, here Marduk is instead being held responsible for crimes committed against Ashur and was subject to a river ordeal and imprisonment.[69] The text opens with Nabu arriving in Babylon looking for Marduk, his father. Tashmetum prayed to Sin and Shamash.[70] Meanwhile, Marduk was being held captive, the color red on his clothes was reinterpreted to be his blood, and the case was brought forward to the god Ashur. The city of Babylon also seemingly rebelled against Marduk, and Nabu learned that Marduk was taken to the river ordeal. Marduk claims that everything was done for the good of the god Ashur and prays to the gods to let him live[ب]. After various alternate cultic commentaries, the Assyrian version of the Enuma Elish was recited, proclaiming Ashur's superiority.[72] However, despite the content, the Marduk Ordeal was not simply an anti-Marduk piece of literature. At no point was Marduk actually accused of a crime, and the end of the text seems to suggest that the gods fought to get Marduk out by drilling holes through the door which he is locked behind.[73] Marduk also appeared in the curse section, so it is possible that the majority of the blame was put on the Babylonians for leading Marduk astray, while Marduk retains a position within the pantheon.[74] While most attribute this text to Sennacherib's destruction of Babylon, Frymer-Kensky suggests that the background could be the return of Marduk's statue to Babylon in 669 BCE.[73]

Enmesharra's Defeat

Known from only one copy and with a badly damaged top half, Enmesharra's Defeat is likely composed in the Seleucid or Parthian era.[75] Structurally similar to the Enuma Elish, the text starts with Enmesharra and his seven sons going against Marduk, who subsequently defeated them and threw them into jail with Nergal as the prison warden. The preserved portion starts with Nergal announcing Marduk's judgement to Enmesharra that he and his sons would all be put to death, and Enmesharra laments about Marduk's terrible judgement and pleads with Nergal. Nergal replies, but the text breaks off.[76] Nergal is then shown to be escorting Enmesharra and his sons to Marduk, who first beheads the sons, and Enmesharra's radiance was then taken and given to Shamash. Nabu was also given the power of Ninurta, Nergal those of Erra, and Marduk took Enlil's power. Marduk, Nabu and Nergal then shared the throne, which likely previously belonged to Anu, together. The gods were then assigned their cities, and a voice from heaven could be heard. A fish-goat praised Marduk as the exalted lord, and the text ends with the gods gathering at Babylon.

نبوءة مردوخ

Late Assyrian seal. Worshipper between Nabu and Marduk, standing on his servant dragon Mušḫuššu. 8th century BCE.

The Marduk Prophecy is a vaticinium ex eventu text (a prophecy written after the events) describing the travels of the Marduk cult statue from Babylon. It relates its visits to the land of Ḫatti, corresponding to the statue's seizure during the sack of the city by Mursili I in 1595 BC (middle chronology); to Assyria, when Tukulti-Ninurta I overthrew Kashtiliash IV, taking the image to Assur in 1225 BC; and to Elam, when Kudur-Nahhunte ransacked the city and pilfered the statue around 1160 BC. [من؟] Marduk addresses the prophecy to an assembly of the gods.

The first two sojourns are described in glowing terms as good for both Babylon and the other places Marduk has graciously agreed to visit. The episode in Elam, however, is a disaster, where the gods have followed Marduk and abandoned Babylon to famine and pestilence. Marduk prophesies that he will return once more to Babylon to a messianic new king, who will bring salvation to the city and who will wreak a terrible revenge on the Elamites. This king is understood to be Nabu-kudurri-uṣur I, 1125–1103 BC.[77] Thereafter the text lists various sacrifices.

A copy[78] was discovered in The House of Exorcist in the city of Assur and was written between 713–612 BC.[79] It is closely related thematically to another vaticinium ex eventu text called the Shulgi prophecy, which probably followed it in a sequence of tablets. Both compositions present a favorable view of Assyria.

بل

نقش من القرن التاسع عشر من گوستاڤ دوريه، يُظهِر مشهداً من "Bel and the Dragon" in which Daniel reveals the deception of the Babylonian priests of Bel, a syncretized form of Marduk[80][81]

During the first millennium BC, the Babylonians worshipped a deity under the title "Bel", meaning "lord", who was a syncretization of Marduk, Enlil, and the dying god Dumuzid.[80][81] Bel held all the cultic titles of Enlil[81] and his status in the Babylonian religion was largely the same.[81] Eventually, Bel came to be seen as the god of order and destiny.[81] The cult of Bel is a major component of the Jewish story of "Bel and the Dragon" from the apocryphal additions to Daniel.[82] In the account, the Babylonians offer "twelve bushels of fine flour, twenty sheep, and fifty gallons of wine" every day to an idol of Bel and the food miraculously disappears overnight.[82] The Persian king Cyrus the Great tells the Jewish wise man Daniel that the idol is clearly alive, because it eats the food that is offered to it,[82] but Daniel objects that it "is only clay on the inside, and bronze on the outside, and has never tasted a thing."[82] Daniel proves this by secretly covering the floor of the temple with ash.[82] Daniel and Cyrus leave the temple and, when they return, Daniel shows the king the human footprints that have been left on the floor, proving that the food is really being eaten by the seventy priests of Bel.[82] Bel is also mentioned in the writings of several Greek historians.[81]

انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

الهامش

  1. ^ Fontenrose 1980, pp. 150, 158.
  2. ^ Syriac Peshitta- Isaiah 39, 2 Kings 20:12, Jeremiah 50:2
  3. ^ Isaiah 39, 2 Kings 20:12, Jeremiah 50:2
  4. ^ أ ب Wiggermann 1992, p. 157.
  5. ^ أ ب Ringgren 1974, p. 66.
  6. ^ Frymer-Kensky 2005.
  7. ^ The Encyclopedia of Religion - Macmillan Library Reference USA - Vol. 9 - Page 201
  8. ^ Jastrow 1911, pp. 217-219.
  9. ^ Roux 1992, p. 266.
  10. ^ Finn 2017, p. 38.
  11. ^ McKenzie 1965, p. 541.
  12. ^ Ringgren 1974, p. 67.
  13. ^ Arendzen 1908.
  14. ^ Littleton 2005, p. 829.
  15. ^ Jastrow 1911, pp. 38.
  16. ^ "Marduk". World History Encyclopedia (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  17. ^ Lambert 1984.
  18. ^ أ ب Krebsbach 2019.
  19. ^ Smith 1922.
  20. ^ أ ب Brinkman 1972.
  21. ^ Tamtik 2007.
  22. ^ O'Brien 1982.
  23. ^ Smith 1952, p. 74.
  24. ^ Johandi 2018, p. 552-553.
  25. ^ Oshima 2011, p. 47.
  26. ^ Taracha 2009, p. 113.
  27. ^ أ ب Geller 1985, p. 15.
  28. ^ أ ب Oshima 2011, p. 45.
  29. ^ Brisch 2007, p. 143.
  30. ^ Oshima 2011, p. 46.
  31. ^ Sommerfield 1982, p. 16.
  32. ^ Sommerfield 1987, p. 368.
  33. ^ Jacobsen 1968, p. 106.
  34. ^ Abusch 1999, p. 544.
  35. ^ Schwemer 2007, p. 128.
  36. ^ Schwemer 2016, p. 70.
  37. ^ Oshima 2006, p. 80.
  38. ^ Oshima 2006, p. 81.
  39. ^ Oshima 2006, p. 82.
  40. ^ Hoffner,_Jr. 1998, p. 52.
  41. ^ Pongratz-Leisten 2015, p. 261.
  42. ^ Oshima 2011, p. 49.
  43. ^ أ ب Oshima 2011, p. 51.
  44. ^ Oshima 2011, p. 50.
  45. ^ Piccin & Worthington 2015, p. 114, citing Spieckermann.
  46. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 6.
  47. ^ Piccin & Worthington 2015, p. 116.
  48. ^ Oshima 2011, p. 62.
  49. ^ Soldt 2005, p. 127.
  50. ^ أ ب George 2016, p. 2.
  51. ^ Johandi 2019, p. 182.
  52. ^ Geller 2015, p. 15.
  53. ^ Frame 1999, p. 15.
  54. ^ أ ب Cunningham 1997, p. 114.
  55. ^ Cunningham 1997, p. 114-115.
  56. ^ Johandi 2019, p. 176.
  57. ^ Seri 2006.
  58. ^ Seri 2006, p. 517.
  59. ^ Dalley 2008, p. 230.
  60. ^ Dalley 2008, p. 231.
  61. ^ Seri 2006, p. 515.
  62. ^ George 1997, p. 66.
  63. ^ Oshima 2014, p. 3.
  64. ^ Oshima 2014, p. 11.
  65. ^ Oshima 2014, p. 9.
  66. ^ Dalley 2008, p. 293.
  67. ^ Frahm 2010, p. 7.
  68. ^ Frymer-Kensky 1983, p. 131.
  69. ^ أ ب Nielsen 2018, p. 98.
  70. ^ Frymer-Kensky 1983, p. 134.
  71. ^ Livingstone 1989, p. 88.
  72. ^ Livingstone 1989, p. 85.
  73. ^ أ ب Frymer-Kensky 1983, p. 140.
  74. ^ Nielsen 2018, p. 99.
  75. ^ Lambert 2013, p. 281.
  76. ^ Lambert 2013, p. 291.
  77. ^ Neujahr 2006, pp. 41–54.
  78. ^ Tablet K. 2158+
  79. ^ "The Marduk Prophecy". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  80. ^ أ ب Fontenrose 1980.
  81. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Doniger 1990.
  82. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Wills 2002.

المراجع

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Marduk" . دائرة المعارف البريطانية (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

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