خندق ماريانا Mariana Trench

Coordinates: 11°21′N 142°12′E / 11.350°N 142.200°E / 11.350; 142.200
هذا المقال هو عن الخندق المحيطي. إذا كنت تريد الفرقة الموسيقية الكندية، انظر خندق ماريانا (فرقة موسيقية).
خندق ماريانا
خندق ماريانا is located in الأرض
خندق ماريانا
خندق ماريانا
الإحداثيات11°21′N 142°12′E / 11.350°N 142.200°E / 11.350; 142.200
Typeخندق محيطي
منابع المحيط/البحرPacific Ocean
الوكالة المشرفةUnited States
جزر ماريانا الشمالية (الولايات المتحدة)
گوام (الولايات المتحدة)
أقصى طول2550 كم
أقصى عرض69 كم
أقصى عمق10,984 ± 25 متر (غور تشالنجر)
الموقع
موقع خندق ماريانا

خندق ماريانا Mariana Trench،[1] هو أعمق نقطة في المحيط بالعالم. ويقع غرب المحيط الهادي، إلى الشرق من جزر ماريانا. يصل طوله إلى 2550 كم ويصل عرضه 69 كم. وأقصى عمق له 10.91 كم (35,800 قدم) عند غور تشالنجر، وهي شق بشكل وادي في قاع الخندق، عند نهايته الجنوبية،[2] على الرغم من أن بعض القياسات قد سجلت نقاط أكثر عمقاً وصلت إلى 10,984 متر عند الطرف الجنوبي لوادي على شكل شق في قاعه المعروف بإسم غور تشالنجر.[3] أعمق نقطة في الخندق تقع على بعد أكثر من 2 كم من سطح البحر من قمة جبل إڤرست.[أ]

At the bottom of the trench at around 11,000 metres below the sea surface, the water column above exerts a pressure of 1،086 bar (15،750 psi), approximately 1,071.8 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level or eight tons per square inch.[6]

The temperature at the bottom is 1 إلى 4 °C (34 إلى 39 °F).[7] In 2009, the Mariana Trench was established as a US National Monument, Mariana Trench Marine National Monument.[8][dead link]

One-celled organisms called monothalamea have been found in the trench at a record depth of 10.6 km (35،000 ft; 6.6 mi) below the sea surface by researchers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.[9] Data has also suggested that microbial life forms thrive within the trench.[10][11]

التسمية

جزر ماريانا ادعت اسبانيا ملكيتها في 1668. وأسست مستعمرة فيها وأعطت الجزر الاسم الرسمي "لاس مارياناس"، تكريماً للملكة ماريانا من النمسا، أرملة فيليپ الخامس من إسپانيا.[12] الجزر هي جزء من island arc that is formed on an over-riding plate, called the Mariana plate (أيضاً مسمى على اسم الجزر)، على الجانب الغربي للخندق.

الجيولوجيا

The Pacific plate is subducted beneath the Mariana plate, creating the Mariana trench, and (further on) the arc of the Mariana Islands, as water trapped in the plate is released and explodes upward to form island volcanoes and earthquakes.

إذا كانت قمة إڤرست (أعلى جبل على الأرض بارتفاع يَبلغ 8.848 متراً) قد وُضعت في أعمق نقطة في خندق ماريانا، فسيَظل هناك 2,076 متراً من الماء فوقها.[2]

جزء من نظام قوس إيزو-بونن-ماريانا يُشكل حدوداً بين صفيحتين تكونيّتين، حيث أن الحافة الغربية لصفيحة الهادي تزلق تحت صفيحة ماريانا الصغيرة. بسبب أن صفيحة الهادي هي أكبر الصفائح التكتونية على الأرض على الإطلاق، وقد مضى على المادة القشرية عند حافتها الغربية وقت طويل منذ تكونها (قبل ما يَصل إلى 170 مليون عام) مما جعلها تكتنز وتصبح كثيفة للغاية، فإن ارتفاعها يَختلف بشكل هائل بالنسبة إلى صفيحة ماريانا عند النقطة التي تنزلق فيها قشرة صفيحة الهادي. وهذه المنطقة العميقة هي مكان خندق ماريانا. وحركة هاتين الصفيحتين مسؤولة أيضاً عن تكوّن جزر ماريانا.

عند قاع الخندق حيث تلتقي الصفيحتان، يُولد عمود الماء فوق ضغطاً يَبلغ 108.6 مـِگاپاسكال، وهذا يُعادل أكثر من ألف ضعف الضغط الجوي القياسي عند مستوى البحر.

بسبب أن الأرض ليس كرويّة تماماً، فإن الخندق ليس أقرب جزءٍ من قاع البحر إلى مركز الأرض - فجزء من قاع المحيط المتجمد الشمالي أقرب بـ13 كيلومتراً على الأقل إلى مركزها من قاع الخندق.

The movement of the Pacific and Mariana plates is also indirectly responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. These volcanic islands are caused by flux melting of the upper mantle due to the release of water that is trapped in minerals of the subducted portion of the Pacific plate.[بحاجة لمصدر]

تاريخ الأبحاث

Ocean trenches in the western Pacific
انظر أيضاً: غور تشالنجر

The trench was first sounded during the Challenger expedition in 1875 using a weighted rope, which recorded a depth of 4،475 fathom (8،184 متر; 26،850 أقدام).[13][14] In 1877, a map was published called Tiefenkarte des Grossen Ozeans ("Depth map of the Great Ocean") by Petermann, which showed a Challenger Tief ("Challenger deep") at the location of that sounding. In 1899, يوإس‌إس Nero, a converted collier, recorded a depth of 5،269 fathom (9،636 متر; 31،614 أقدام).[15]

In 1951, under Chief Scientist Thomas Gaskell, Challenger II surveyed the trench using echo sounding, a much more precise and vastly easier way to measure depth than the sounding equipment and drag lines used in the original expedition. During this survey, the deepest part of the trench was recorded when the Challenger II measured a depth of 5،960 fathom (10،900 متر; 35،760 أقدام) at 11°19′N 142°15′E / 11.317°N 142.250°E / 11.317; 142.250,[16] known as the Challenger Deep.[17]

In 1957, the Soviet vessel Vityaz reported a depth of 11،034 m (36،201 ft; 6،033 fathom) at a location dubbed the Mariana Hollow.[18][مطلوب مصدر أفضل]

In 1984, the Japanese survey vessel Takuyō (拓洋) collected data from the Mariana Trench using a narrow, multi-beam echo sounder; it reported a maximum depth of 10،924 متر (35،840 ft), also reported as 10،920 ± 10 m (35،827 ± 33 ft; 5،971.1 ± 5.5 fathom).[19] Remotely Operated Vehicle KAIKO reached the deepest area of the Mariana Trench and made the deepest diving record of 10،911 m (35،797 ft; 5،966 fathom) on 24 March 1995.[20]

During surveys carried out between 1997 and 2001, a spot was found along the Mariana Trench that had a depth similar to the Challenger Deep, possibly even deeper. It was discovered while scientists from the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology were completing a survey around Guam; they used a sonar mapping system towed behind the research ship to conduct the survey. This new spot was named the HMRG (Hawaii Mapping Research Group) Deep, after the group of scientists who discovered it.[21]

On 1 June 2009, mapping aboard the RV Kilo Moana (mothership of the Nereus vehicle), indicated a spot with a depth of 10،971 m (35،994 ft; 5،999 fathom). The sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep was possible by its Simrad EM120 sonar multibeam bathymetry system for deep water. The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth across the entire swath (implying that the depth figure is accurate to ± 22 متر (72 ft; 12 fathom)).[22][23]

In 2011, it was announced at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting that a US Navy hydrographic ship equipped with a multibeam echosounder conducted a survey which mapped the entire trench to 100 m (330 ft; 55 fathom) resolution.[4] The mapping revealed the existence of four rocky outcrops thought to be former seamounts.[24]

The Mariana Trench was a site chosen by researchers at Washington University in St. Louis and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 2012 for a seismic survey to investigate the subsurface water cycle. Using both ocean-bottom seismometers and hydrophones, the scientists were able to map structures as deep as 97 كيلومتر (318،000 ft; 53،000 fathom; 60 mi) beneath the surface.[25]

النزول إليه

The bathyscaphe Trieste (designed by Auguste Piccard), the first crewed vehicle to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench[26]
تم إنزال كاميرا إلى عمق ١١٠٠٠ متر في جرف ماريانا، أعمق نقطة على وجه الأرض.

As of 2022, 22 crewed descents and seven uncrewed descents have been achieved. The first was the crewed descent by Swiss-designed, Italian-built, United States Navy-owned bathyscaphe Trieste, which reached the bottom at 1:06 pm on 23 January 1960, with Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard on board.[17][27] Iron shot was used for ballast, with gasoline for buoyancy.[17] The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37،800 أقدام (11،521 m; 6،300 fathom),[28] but this was later revised to 35،814 أقدام (10،916 m; 5،969 fathom).[29] The depth was estimated from a conversion of pressure measured and calculations based on the water density from sea surface to seabed.[27]

This was followed by the uncrewed ROVs Kaikō in 1996 and Nereus in 2009. The first three expeditions directly measured very similar depths of 10،902 إلى 10،916 m (35،768 إلى 35،814 ft; 5،961 إلى 5،969 fathom).[30][31] The fourth was made by Canadian film director James Cameron on 26 March 2012. He reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench in the submersible vessel Deepsea Challenger, diving to a depth of 10،908 m (35،787 ft; 5،965 fathom).[32][33][34]

In July 2015, members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oregon State University, and the Coast Guard submerged a hydrophone into the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, the Challenger Deep, never having previously deployed one past a mile. The titanium-shelled hydrophone was designed to withstand the immense pressure 7 mi (37،000 ft; 6،200 fathom; 11،000 m) under.[35] Although researchers were unable to retrieve the hydrophone until November, the data capacity was full within the first 23 days. After months of analyzing the sounds, the experts were surprised to pick up natural sounds like earthquakes, typhoons, baleen whales, and machine-made sounds such as boats.[36]

Victor Vescovo achieved a new record descent to 10،928 m (35،853 ft; 5،976 fathom) on 28 April 2019 using the DSV Limiting Factor, a Triton 36000/2 model manufactured by Florida-based Triton Submarines. He dived four times between 28 April and 5 May 2019, becoming the first person to dive into Challenger Deep more than once. It was then reported on 13 May.[37][38][39]

On 8 May 2020, a joint project between the Russian shipbuilders, scientific teams of the Russian Academy of Sciences with the support of the Russian Foundation for Advanced Research Projects and the Pacific Fleet submerged the autonomous underwater vehicle Vityaz-D to the bottom of the Mariana Trench at a depth of 10،028 m (32،900 ft; 5،483 fathom). Vityaz-D is the first underwater vehicle to operate autonomously at the extreme depths of the Mariana Trench. The duration of the mission, excluding diving and surfacing, was more than 3 hours.[40][41]

On 10 November 2020, the Chinese submersible Fendouzhe reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench at a depth of 10،909 m (35،791 ft; 5،965 fathom).[42][43]

الحياة

The expedition conducted in 1960 claimed to have observed, with great surprise because of the high pressure, large creatures living at the bottom, such as a flatfish about 30 cm (12 in) long,[28] and shrimp.[44] According to Piccard, "The bottom appeared light and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze".[28] Many marine biologists are now skeptical of the supposed sighting of the flatfish, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber.[45][46] During the second expedition, the uncrewed vehicle Kaikō collected mud samples from the seabed.[47] Tiny organisms were found to be living in those samples.[بحاجة لمصدر]

في أوائل عام 2010، كشفت دراسة للحياة في خندق ماريانا عن وجود مركبات لكالكاريوس في عيّنات أخذت من عمق تشالنجر، وهي عبارة عن صفائح من كربونات الكالسيوم لطحالب صغيرة تسمى "الكوكّولِثوفورات"، إضافة إلى شظايا من أشكال حياة من العوالق. وقد بنت هذه المخلوقات المجهرية بيوتها من مواد مثل السيليكا والمعادن مثل الكوارتز، والتي يُعتقد أنها وصلت إلى هذا العمق عن طريق "ثلج بحري" سريع الغرق انجرف في المحيط.[48]

منطقة اقتصادية خاصة للولايات المتحدة

خريطة خندق ماريانا، وتبين حدود المنطقة الاقتصادية الخاصة.

وفي 28 ديسمبر 2017، أعلنت الصين عن بدء برنامج موسع للأبحاث الصوتية في خندق ماريانا، وهي منطقة اقتصادية خالصة أمريكية.[49]

لعلها مقابل إصرار أمريكا على تسيير دوريات في بحر الصين الجنوبي، الذي تعتبره الصين منطقة اقتصادية خالصة.

التلوث

In 2016, a research expedition looked at the chemical makeup of crustacean scavengers collected from the range of 7،841–10،250 m (25،725–33،629 ft; 4،288–5،605 fathom) within the trench. Within these organisms, the researchers found extremely elevated concentrations of PCBs, a chemical toxin banned in the 1970s for its environmental harm, concentrated at all depths within the sediment of the trench.[50] Further research has found that amphipods also ingest microplastics, with 100% of amphipods having at least one piece of synthetic material in their stomachs.[51][52]

In 2019, Victor Vescovo reported finding a plastic bag and candy wrappers at the bottom of the trench.[53] That year, Scientific American also reported that carbon-14 from nuclear bomb testing has been found in the bodies of aquatic animals found in the trench.[54]

موقع مقترح لدفن النفايات النووية

Like other oceanic trenches, the Mariana Trench has been proposed as a site for nuclear waste disposal[55][56] in the hope that tectonic plate subduction occurring at the site might eventually push the nuclear waste deep into the Earth's mantle, the second layer of the Earth. In 1979 Japan planned to dump low-level nuclear wastes near Maug, in the Northern Marianas.[57] However, ocean dumping of nuclear waste is prohibited by international law.[55][56][58] Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, the effects of which are unpredictable for the safety of long-term disposal of nuclear wastes within the hadopelagic ecosystem.[56]

مرئيات

لقطات من خندق ماريانا. 10792 مترا (36000 قدم) تحت سطح المحيط.

انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

  1. ^ خندق ماريانا يبلغ عمقه 10,994 متر،[4] بينما جبل إڤرست يصل ارتفاعه 8,848 متر.[5] الفرق هو 2،146 m (7،041 ft; 1.333 mi), or at least no less than 2،104 m (6،903 ft; 1.307 mi), accounting for the combined 42 m (138 ft; 0.026 mi) uncertainty in the measurements.

هوامش

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