حزام الانقلابات

Coup Belt
Geopolitical concept applied on Africa
African countries that have had successful coups between 2020 and 2023
African countries that have had successful coups between 2020 and 2023
ContinentAfrica
CountriesSahel and West Africa, mainly:

The Coup Belt (فرنسية: la ceinture de coups d'État[1]) is a modern geopolitical concept and neologism to describe the region of West Africa, Central Africa and the Sahel that has a high prevalence of coups d'état.[2][3][4][5]

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Overview

The number of successful coups d'état in postcolonial Africa (As of 1 August 2023).[6] A successful coup occurred in Gabon on 30 August 2023.
ملف:Belt Coup.png
Human Development Index (HDI) of African countries, with the Coup Belt outlined in red (Gabon is sometimes included following the 2023 coup). Every country in the Coup Belt, except Gabon, has an HDI below 0.500, indicating low human development.


Origin

Although likely older,[7][8] the term became popular in the 2020s after a string of coups in the early 2020s, including in Mali in 2020 and 2021,[9] Chad,[10] Guinea,[11] and Sudan[12] in 2021, two in Burkina Faso in January and September in 2022,[13][14] and in Niger and Gabon in 2023.[15][16] The region also saw attempted coups in Niger and Sudan in 2021, Guinea–Bissau and The Gambia in 2022, and Sudan and Sierra Leone in 2023.

After the 2023 Nigerien coup, these countries formed a continuous chain stretching between the east and west coasts of Africa.[10]

History

Since 1990, 78% of the 27 coups in sub-Saharan Africa have taken place in former French colonies. This has led some to question whether French influence in Africa has a destabilising impact.[17]

The military juntas of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger cancelled military agreements that allowed for French troops to operate on their territory, and in the case of Mali, removed French as an official language.[18][19][20]

Niger was meant to host the French troops removed from Mali and Burkina Faso[21] but the 2023 Nigerien crisis and cancellation of military ties with France has complicated this arrangement.[21][22]

ECOWAS has tried to actively work on changing this label that is associated with the region, although unsuccessfully; they suspended Mali after their coup in 2021,[23] and also suspended Guinea on 8 September 2021, shortly after a military coup took place in the country.[24][25]

The coups have been similar in nature; most came from dissatisfied militaries who criticised their respective government's handling of Islamic insurgents or protests.[بحاجة لمصدر] The incoming juntas also tend to have worse relations with the West, with many seeking support from either Russia and the Wagner Group or Turkey instead of France, who helped the countries fight against Islamic insurgents through Operation Barkhane.

Summary of coups d'état in West Africa, Central Africa, and the Sahel region

Date Country Event Head of state
or government 		Coup leader(s) Outcome
June 1957 Sudan 1957 Sudanese coup attempt Abdallah Khalil Abdel Rahman Ismail Kabeida Coup failure
17 November 1959 1959 Sudanese coup attempt Ibrahim Abboud
13 January 1963  داهومي 1963 Dahomeyan coup d'état Hubert Maga Christophe Soglo Coup successful
28 October 1963  توگو 1963 Togolese coup d'état Sylvanus Olympio
17 February 1964  الگابون 1964 Gabonese coup d'état Léon M'ba
Coup briefly successful; M'ba restored following French intervention
31 December 1965 – 1 January 1966  جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état David Dacko Jean-Bédel Bokassa Coup successful
3 January 1966  ڤولتا العليا 1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état Maurice Yaméogo Sangoulé Lamizana
16 January 1966  نيجريا 1966 Nigerian coup d'état Nnamdi Azikiwe Chukwuma Kaduna NzeogwuEmmanuel Ifeajuna Coup failure
24 February 1966  غانا 1966 Ghanaian coup d'état Kwame Nkrumah Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka Coup successful
28 July 1966  نيجريا 1966 Nigerian counter-coup Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi Murtala Muhammed
13 January 1967  توگو 1967 Togolese coup d'état Nicolas Grunitzky Étienne Eyadéma
21 March 1967  سيراليون First 1967 Sierra Leone coup d'état Siaka Stevens David Lansana
23 March 1967 Second 1967 Sierra Leone coup d'état David Lansana Andrew Juxon-Smith
18 November 1968  مالي 1968 Malian coup d'état Modibo Keïta Moussa Traoré
25 May 1969 Sudan 1969 Sudanese coup d'état Ismail al-Azhari Jaafar Nimeiry
19–22 July 1971  السودان 1971 Sudanese coup d'état Jaafar Nimeiry Hashem al Atta Coup briefly successful; Nimeiry restored following counter-coup
13 January 1972  غانا 1972 Ghanaian coup d'état Kofi Abrefa Busia Ignatius Kutu Acheampong Coup successful
26 October 1972  داهومي 1972 Dahomeyan coup d'état Presidential Council Mathieu Kérékou
15 April 1974  النيجر 1974 Nigerien coup d'état Hamani Diori Seyni Kountché
13–15 April 1975  تشاد 1975 Chadian coup d'état N’Garta Tombalbaye Noël Milarew OdingarWadel Abdelkader Kamougué
29 July 1975  نيجريا 1975 Nigerian coup d'état Yakubu Gowon Joseph Nanven GarbaMurtala Muhammed
13 February 1976 1976 Nigerian coup attempt Murtala Muhammed Buka Suka Dimka Coup failure; Muhammed assassinated
2–5 July 1976  السودان 1976 Sudanese coup attempt Jaafar Nimeiry Sadiq al-MahdiMuhammad Nour Saad Coup failure
17 January 1977  بنين 1977 Benin coup attempt Mathieu Kérékou Bob Denard
10 July 1978  موريتانيا 1978 Mauritanian coup d'état Moktar Ould Daddah Mustafa Ould Salek Coup successful
6 April 1979 1979 Mauritanian coup d'état Mustafa Ould Salek Ahmed Ould BouceifMohamed Mahmoud Ould LoulyMohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla
21 September 1979 قالب:Country data Central African Empire Operation Caban Bokassa I David Dacko Operation successful
12 April 1980  ليبريا 1980 Liberian coup d'état William Tolbert Samuel Doe Coup successful
14 November 1980  غينيا-بيساو 1980 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état Luís Cabral João Bernardo Vieira
25 November 1980  ڤولتا العليا 1980 Upper Volta coup d'état Sangoulé Lamizana Saye Zerbo
16 March 1981  موريتانيا 1981 Mauritanian coup attempt Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla Ahmed Salim Ould Sidi Coup failure
30 July – 4 August 1981  گامبيا 1981 Gambian coup attempt Dawda Jawara Kukoi Sanyang Coup failure following Senegalese intervention
1 September 1981  جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى 1981 Central African Republic coup d'état David Dacko André Kolingba Coup successful
31 December 1981  غانا 1981 Ghanaian coup d'état Hilla Limann Jerry Rawlings
3 March 1982  جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى 1982 Central African Republic coup d'état attempt André Kolingba Ange-Félix Patassé Coup failure
7 November 1982  ڤولتا العليا 1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état Say Zerbo Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo Coup successful
28 February 1983 1983 Upper Voltan coup d'état attempt Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo Saye Zerbo Coup failure
4 August 1983 1983 Upper Voltan coup d'état Thomas Sankara Coup successful
31 December 1983  نيجريا 1983 Nigerian coup d'état Shehu Shagari Muhammadu Buhari
3 April 1984  غينيا 1984 Guinean coup d'état Louis Lansana Beavogui Lansana Conté
April 1984  الكاميرون 1984 Cameroonian coup attempt Paul Biya Coup failure
12 December 1984  موريتانيا 1984 Mauritanian coup d'état Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Coup successful
6 April 1985  السودان 1985 Sudanese coup d'état Jaafar Nimeiry Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab
27 August 1985  نيجريا 1985 Nigerian coup d'état Muhammadu Buhari Ibrahim Babangida
12 November 1985  ليبريا 1985 Liberian coup d'état attempt Samuel Doe Thomas Quiwonkpa Coup failure
23 September 1986  توگو 1986 Togolese coup attempt Gnassingbé Eyadéma
23 March 1987  سيراليون 1987 Sierra Leonean coup d'état attempt Joseph Saidu Momoh Francis Minah
15 October 1987 بوركينا فاسو Burkina Faso 1987 Burkina Faso coup d'état Thomas Sankara Blaise Compaoré Coup successful
30 June 1989  السودان 1989 Sudanese coup d'état Ahmed al-Mirghani Omar al-Bashir
18 September 1989 بوركينا فاسو Burkina Faso 1989 Burkina Faso coup attempt Blaise Compaoré Jean-Baptiste Boukary LinganiHenri Zongo Coup failure
22 April 1990  نيجريا 1990 Nigerian coup attempt Ibrahim Babangida Gideon Orkar
3 December 1990  تشاد 1990 Chadian coup d'état Hissène Habré Idriss Déby Coup successful
26 March 1991  مالي 1991 Malian coup d'état Moussa Traoré Amadou Toumani Touré
29 April 1992  سيراليون 1992 Sierra Leonean coup d'état Joseph Saidu Momoh Valentine Strasser
17 November 1993  نيجريا 1993 Nigerian coup d'état Ernest Shonekan Sani Abacha
22 July 1994  گامبيا 1994 Gambian coup d'état Dawda Jawara Yahya Jammeh
27 January 1996  النيجر 1996 Nigerien coup d'état Mahamane Ousmane Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara
9 April 1999 1999 Nigerien coup d'état Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara Daouda Malam Wanké
24 December 1999  ساحل العاج 1999 Ivorian coup d'état Henri Konan Bédié Tuo Fozié
15 March 2003  جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى 2003 Central African Republic coup d'état Ange-Félix Patassé François Bozizé
8–9 June 2003  موريتانيا 2003 Mauritanian coup attempt Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Saleh Ould Hanenna Coup failure
14 September 2003  غينيا-بيساو 2003 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état Kumba Ialá Veríssimo Correia Seabra Coup successful
7 October 2003  بوركينا فاسو 2003 Burkina Faso coup d'état attempt Blaise Compaoré Luther Diapagri Oualy Coup failure
16 May 2004  تشاد 2004 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby Bechir Haggar
5 February 2005  توگو 2005 Togolese coup d'état Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba
Coup successful
3 August 2005  موريتانيا 2005 Mauritanian coup d'état Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Ely Ould Mohamed Vall
14 March 2006  تشاد 2006 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby Tom Erdimi

Timane Erdimi Seby Aguid

Coup failure
6 August 2008  موريتانيا 2008 Mauritanian coup d'état Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz Coup successful
23 December 2008  غينيا 2008 Guinean coup d'état Aboubacar Somparé Moussa Dadis Camara
18 February 2010  النيجر 2010 Nigerien coup d'état Mamadou Tandja Salou Djibo
16 July 2011 2011 Nigerien coup d'état attempt Mahamadou Issoufou Coup failure
21 March 2012  مالي 2012 Malian coup d'état Amadou Toumani Touré Amadou Sanogo Coup successful
23–24 March 2013  جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى Battle of Bangui (2013) François Bozizé Michel Djotodia Séléka victory
1 May 2013  تشاد 2013 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby Moussa Tao Mahamat Coup failure
3 November 2014  بوركينا فاسو 2014 Burkina Faso uprising Blaise Compaoré
Uprising successful
30 December 2014  گامبيا 2014 Gambian coup attempt Yahya Jammeh Lamin Sanneh Coup failure
16 September 2015  بوركينا فاسو 2015 Burkina Faso coup d'état attempt Michel Kafando Gilbert Diendéré
7 January 2019  الگابون 2019 Gabonese coup attempt Ali Bongo Ondimba Kelly Ondo Obiang
11 April 2019  السودان 2019 Sudanese coup d'état Omar al-Bashir
Coup successful
18 August 2020  مالي 2020 Malian coup d'état Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta
31 March 2021  النيجر 2021 Nigerien coup d'état attempt Mohamed Bazoum Sani Saley Gourouza Coup failure
20 April 2021  تشاد Death of Idriss Déby Vacant Mahamat Déby Mahamat Déby takes office as leader of a military junta. Regarded as a coup by regional opposition.
24 May 2021  مالي 2021 Malian coup d'état Bah Ndaw Assimi Goïta Coup successful
5 September 2021  غينيا 2021 Guinean coup d'état Alpha Condé Mamady Doumbouya
25 October 2021  السودان 2021 Sudan coup d'état Abdalla Hamdok
23 January 2022  بوركينا فاسو January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état Roch Marc Christian Kaboré Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba
30 September 2022 September 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba Ibrahim Traoré
15 April 2023  السودان 2023 Sudan conflict Abdel Fattah al-Burhan Hemedti Inconclusive; led to civil conflict
26 July 2023  النيجر 2023 Nigerien coup d'état Mohamed Bazoum
Coup successful
31 July 2023  سيراليون 2023 Sierra Leone coup attempt Julius Maada Bio Mohammed Yetey Turay Coup failure
30 August 2023  الگابون 2023 Gabonese coup d'état Ali Bongo Ondimba Brice Oligui Coup successful


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References

  1. ^ Guibal, Claude (August 15, 2023). "Niger : en Afrique, la ceinture des coups d'État redessine la carte du continent". France Info. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
  2. ^ Mekki Elmograbi (7 September 2021). "Guinea Joins the African Club of the "Coup Belt"". BL News.
  3. ^ Suleiman, Muhammad Dan (September 24, 2021). "Towards a Better Understanding of the Underlying Conditions of Coups in Africa". e-ir.info.com. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  4. ^ "Africa's 'coup belt' facing further upheaval". Arab News. February 2, 2022.
  5. ^ Onuah, Felix (5 December 2022). "West African leaders plan peacekeeping force to counter 'coup belt' reputation". Reuters. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  6. ^ Duzor, Megan; Williamson, Brian (February 2, 2022). "By the Numbers: Coups in Africa". Voice of America. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
  7. ^ "Explainer: Niger a linchpin for stability in Africa's 'coup belt'". The Guardian (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). 2023-07-27. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-09-02.
  8. ^ Dyer, Gwynne (2022-02-07). "Opinion: The return of Africa's military 'Coup Belt'". Bangor Daily News (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 2023-09-02.
  9. ^ "After Two Coups, Mali Needs Regional Support to Bolster Democracy". United States Institute of Peace (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  10. ^ أ ب Walsh, Declan (2023-07-29). "Coast to Coast, a Corridor of Coups Brings Turmoil in Africa". The New York Times (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
  11. ^ Duncan, Timothyna Afua (2021-12-16). "Why a coup in Guinea was felt around the world". CNBC (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  12. ^ "Sudan's Coup: One Year Later". Council on Foreign Relations (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  13. ^ "A timeline of the coup in Burkina Faso since January 2022". The Hindu (in الإنجليزية). 2022-10-03. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  14. ^ "Burkina Faso's coup and political situation: All you need to know". Al Jazeera (in الإنجليزية). 5 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  15. ^ "Niger's Bazoum 'held by guards' in apparent coup attempt". Al Jazeera (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). 26 July 2023. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  16. ^ Dixon, Gary (2023-08-30). "Gabon closes shipping down after post-election coup". TradeWinds (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 2023-08-30.
  17. ^ Mbulle-Nziege, Leonard; Cheeseman, Nic (2023-08-06). "Niger coup: Is France to blame for coups in West Africa?". BBC News (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  18. ^ Ndiaga, Thiam (2023-02-20). "Burkina Faso marks official end of French military operations on its soil". Reuters (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  19. ^ "Last French troops leave Mali, ending nine-year deployment". Al Jazeera (in الإنجليزية). 16 August 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  20. ^ Avi-Yonah, Shera (2023-08-04). "Mali demotes French, language of its former colonizer, in symbolic move". The Washington Post (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  21. ^ أ ب "Africanews | French forces make Niger new home after being expelled by Mali". Africanews (in الإنجليزية). 2022-07-05. Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  22. ^ Leali, Giorgio (2023-08-04). "Niger junta revokes military pacts with France". POLITICO (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-08-06.
  23. ^ "ECOWAS suspends Mali over second coup in nine months". Al Jazeera. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
  24. ^ Samb, Saliou; Eboh, Camillus; Inveen, Cooper (September 9, 2021). Heritage, Timothy; Orlofsky, Steve; Pullin, Richard (eds.). "West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry". Reuters. Retrieved September 9, 2021.
  25. ^ "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup," September 9, 2021, BBC News, retrieved September 9, 2021
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