النسخ الحرفي للغة المصرية القديمة

في علم المصريات، النسخ الحرفي، هو عملية تحويل (أو رسمي تفصيلي) للنصوص المكتوبة باللغة المصرية إلى رموز أبجدية تمثل الهيروغليفية المصرية ذات المقطع الواحد أو نظيرتها من الهيراطيقية والديموطية. تسهل هذه العملية نشر النصوص حيث يكون إدراج الصور أو الرسومات الموجودة في الوثيقة المصرية الأصلية غير عملي.

ينبغي التأكيد على أن النسخ الحرفي ليس كالنسخ اللفظي. النسخ اللفظي يهدف إلى إستنساخ نُطق النص. على سبيل المثال اسم مؤسس الأسرة الثانية والعشرين يُنسخ حرفياً ššnq لكنه يُنسخ لفظياً شوشنق بالعربية، Shoshenq بالإنگليزية، Chéchanq بالفرنسية، Sjesjonk بالهولندية وScheschonq بالألمانية.

نظراً لأن التفاصيل الدقيقة المتعلقة بصوتيات اللغة المصرية القديمة غير معروفة بالكامل، فمعظم النسخ اللفظي يعتمد على اللغة القبطية لإعادة البناء أو تتم بطريقة نظرية. ولذلك، فعلماء المصريات، يعتمدون على النسخ الحرفي في المنشورات العلمية.

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 المعايير

هذه المقالة تحتوي على IPA phonetic symbols. بدون دعم العرض المناصب، فقد ترى علامات استفهام، مربعات، أو رموز أخرى بدلاً من Unicode characters.

As important as transliteration is to the field of Egyptology, there is no one standard scheme in use for hieroglyphic and hieratic texts. Some might even argue that there are as many systems of transliteration as there are Egyptologists. However, there are a few closely related systems that can be regarded as conventional. Many non-German-speaking Egyptologists use the system described in Gardiner 1954, whereas many German-speaking scholars tend to opt for that used in the Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache (Erman and Grapow 1926–1953), the standard dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. However, there is a growing trend, even among English-speaking scholars, to adopt a modified version of the method used in the Wörterbuch (e.g., Allen 2000).

Although these conventional approaches to transliteration have been followed since most of the second half of the nineteenth century to the present day, there have been some attempts to adopt a modified system that seeks to utilise the International Phonetic Alphabet to a certain degree. The most successful of these is that developed by Wolfgang Schenkel (1990), and it is being used fairly widely in Germany and other German-speaking countries. More recent is a proposal by Thomas Schneider (2003) that is even closer to the IPA, but its usage is not presently common. The major criticism levelled against both of these systems is that they give an impression of being much more scientifically accurate with regard to the pronunciation of Egyptian. Unfortunately this perceived accuracy is debatable. Moreover, the systems reflect only the theoretical pronunciation of Middle Egyptian and not the older and later phases of the language, which are themselves to be transliterated with the same system.

 النسخ الحرفي الإلكتروني

In 1984 a standard, ASCII-based transliteration system was proposed by an international group of Egyptologists at the first Table ronde informatique et égyptologie and published in 1988 (see Buurman, Grimal, et al., 1988). This has come to be known as the Manuel de Codage (or MdC) system, based on the title of the publication, Inventaire des signes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. It is widely used in e-mail discussion lists and internet forums catering to professional Egyptologists and the interested public.

Although the Manuel de codage system allows for simple "alphabetic" transliterations, it also specifies a complex method for electronically encoding complete ancient Egyptian texts, indicating features such as the placement, orientation, and even size of individual hieroglyphs. This system is used (though frequently with modifications) by various software packages developed for typesetting hieroglyphic texts (such as SignWriter, WinGlyph, MacScribe, InScribe, Glyphotext, WikiHiero, and others).

 اليونيكود

With the introduction of the Latin Extended Additional block to Unicode version 1.1 (1992) and the addition of Egyptological alef and ayin to Unicode version 5.1 (2008), it is possible to fully transliterate Egyptian texts using a Unicode typeface. The following table only lists the special characters used in various transliteration schemes (see below).

الحروف المستنسخة في اليونيكود

Minuscule	ꜣ ()	ʾ ()	ı͗ ()	i̯	ï	ꜥ ()	u̯	ḥ	ḫ	ẖ	h̭
اليونيكود	U+A723	U+02BE	U+0131 U+0357	U+0069 U+032F	U+00EF	U+A725	U+0075 U+032F	U+1E25	U+1E2B	U+1E96	U+0068 U+032D
Majuscule	Ꜣ		I͗	I̯	Ï	Ꜥ	U̯	Ḥ	Ḫ	H̱	H̭
اليونيكود	U+A722		U+0048 U+0357	U+0048 U+032F	U+00CF	U+A724	U+0055 U+032F	U+1E24	U+1E2A	U+0048 U+0331	U+0048 U+032D
Minuscule	ś	š	ḳ	č	ṯ	ṭ	ṱ	č̣	ḏ
اليونيكود	U+015B	U+0161	U+1E33	U+010D	U+1E6F	U+1E6D	U+1E71	U+010D U+0323	U+1E0F
Majuscule	Ś	Š	Ḳ	Č	Ṯ	Ṭ	Ṱ	Č̣	Ḏ
اليونيكود	U+015A	U+0160	U+1E32	U+010C	U+1E6E	U+1E6C	U+1E70	U+010C U+0323	U+1E0E
Brackets/ interpunction	⸗	⟨	⟩	⌈	⌉
اليونيكود	U+2E17	U+27E8	U+27E9	U+2308	U+2309

 الألف،العين والياء في علم المصريات

هناك حروف إضافية لازمة للنسخ الحرفي المصري:

• الألف (, two Semitistic alephs, one set over the other (Lepsius); approximated by the digit ⟨3⟩ in ASCII);
• العين (, a Semitistic ayin);
• الياء (, i with a Semitistic aleph instead of the dot, both yod and alef being considered possible sound values in the 19th century).

Although six Egyptological and Ugariticist letters were proposed in August 2000, it was not until 2008 (Unicode 5.1) that four of the six letters were encoded:

الحرف	الحرف الكبير	الحرف الصغير
الألف	Ꜣ U+A722	ꜣ U+A723
العين	Ꜥ U+A724	ꜥ U+A725

Another two proposals were made regarding the Egyptological yod, the eventual result of which was to accept the use of the Cyrillic psili pneumata (U+0486 ◌҆ ) as one of several possible diacritics for this purpose. The other options use the superscript comma (U+0313) and the right half ring above (U+0357). OpenType tables in fonts will be necessary to support the combination correctly.

Examples showing the Cyrillic option and the and the reverse sicilicus option are given below:

الياء

الحرف	الحرف الكبير	الحرف الصغير
Cyrillic psili pneumata	I҆ U+0049 U+0486	i҆ U+0069 U+0486
Right right half ring above	I͗ U+0049 U+0357	ı͗ U+0069 U+0357

The Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale adopted its own Unicode-based transliteration system. It uses the Middle English yogh ⟨ȝ⟩ (Unicode U+021D) for alef (hamza), ⟨j⟩ or Vietnamese ⟨ỉ⟩ (Unicode U+1EC9, i with hook above) for Egyptological yod, and a reverse sicilicus ⟨ʿ⟩ (Unicode U+02BF) for ayin.

 الديموطية

As the latest stage of pre-Coptic Egyptian, Demotic texts have long been transliterated using the same system(s) used for hieroglyphic and hieratic texts. However in 1980, Demotists adopted a single, uniform, international standard based on the traditional system used for hieroglyphic, but with the addition of some extra symbols for vowels (which are frequently indicated in Demotic) and other letters that were written in the Demotic script. The Demotic Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (or CDD) utilises this method. As this system is likely only of interest to specialists, for details see the references below.

• de Cenival, Françoise. 1980. "Unification des méthodes de translittération." Enchoria: Zeitschrift für Demotistik und Koptologie 10:2–4.
• Johnson, Janet H. 1980. "CDDP Transliteration System." Enchoria 10:5–6.
• Johnson, Janet H. 1991. Thus Wrote 'Onchsheshonqy: An Introductory Grammar of Demotic. 2nd ed. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 45. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Tait, William John. 1982. "The Transliteration of Demotic." Enchoria 11:67–76.
• Thissen, Heinz-Josef. 1980. "Zur Transkription demotischer Texte." Enchoria 10:7–9.

 جدول برامج النسخ الحرفي التقليدية

هذه المقالة تحتوي على حروف خاصة. بدون دعم العرض المناصب، فقد ترى علامات استفهام، مربعات، أو رموز أخرى.

	Erman & Grapow 1926–1953	Gardiner 1957	Buurman, Grimal, et al. 1988	Schenkel 1991	Hannig 1995	Allen 2000	Hoch 1997	Schneider 2003	traditional English pronunciation
𓄿	ꜣ (, 3)	3	A	3	3	3	3	ɹ	/ɑː/
𓇋	ı͗/j	ı͗	i	ı͗	j	j	ı͗	ı͗	/ɑː, iː/
𓇌	ı͗j	y	y	y	y	y	y	y	/j, iː/
𓂝	ꜥ (ˤ)	ˤ	a	ˤ	ˤ	ˤ	ˤ	ɗ	/ɑː/
𓅱	w	w	w	w	w	w	w	w	/w, uː/
𓃀	b	b	b	b	b	b	b	b	/b/
𓊪	p	p	p	p	p	p	p	p	/p/
𓆑	f	f	f	f	f	f	f	f	/f/
𓅓	m	m	m	m	m	m	m	m	/m/
𓈖	n	n	n	n	n	n	n	n	/n/
𓂋	r	r	r	r	r	r	r	l	/r/
𓉔	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	h	/h/
𓎛	ḥ	ḥ	H	ḥ	ḥ	ḥ	ḥ	ḥ	/h/
𓐍	ḫ	ḫ	x	ḫ	ḫ	ḫ	ḫ	ḫ	/x/
𓄡	ẖ	ẖ	X	ẖ	ẖ	ẖ	ẖ	ẖ	/x/
𓊃	s	s	s	s	z, s	z	s	s	/s/
𓋴	ś	s	s	ś	s	s	s	ś	/s/
𓈙	š	š	S	š	š	š	š	š	/ʃ/
𓈎	ḳ	ḳ	q	ḳ	q	q	q	ḳ	/k/
𓎡	k	k	k	k	k	k	k	k	/k/
𓎼	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	g	/ɡ/
𓏏	t	t	t	t	t	t	t	t	/t/
𓍿	ṯ	ṯ	T	č	ṯ	ṯ	ṯ	c	/tʃ/
𓂧	d	d	d	ṭ	d	d	d	ḍ	/d/
𓆓	ḏ	ḏ	D	č̣	ḏ	ḏ	ḏ	c̣	/dʒ/

The vowel /ɛ/ is conventionally inserted between consonants to make Egyptian words pronounceable in English.

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 عينات من مشاريع النسخ الحرفي

The following text (rendered using WikiHiero) is transliterated below in some of the more common schemes.

[Unicode: 𓇓𓏏𓊵𓏙𓊩𓁹𓏃𓋀𓅂𓊹𓉻𓎟𓍋𓈋𓃀𓊖𓏤𓄋𓈐𓎟𓇾𓈅𓏤𓂦𓈉 ]

(This text is conventionally translated into English as "an offering that the king gives; and Osiris, Foremost of Westerners [i.e., the Dead], the Great God, Lord of Abydos; and Wepwawet, Lord of the Sacred Land [i.e., the Necropolis]." It can also be translated "a royal offering of Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, the Great God, Lord of Abydos; and of Wepwawet, Lord of the Sacred Land" [Allen 2000:§24.10].)

Erman and Grapow 1926–1953

• ḥtp-dỉ-nśwt wśỉr ḫntỉj ỉmntjw nṯr ˤꜣ nb ꜣbḏw wp-wꜣwt nb tꜣ ḏśr

Gardiner 1953

• ḥtp-dỉ-nswt wsỉr ḫnty ỉmntỉw nṯr ˤȝ nb ȝbḏw wp-wȝwt nb tȝ ḏsr

Buurman, Grimal, et al. 1988

• Htp-di-nswt wsir xnty imntiw nTr aA nb AbDw wp-wAwt nb tA Dsr

A fully encoded, machine-readable version of the same text is:

• M23-X1:R4-X8-Q2:D4-W17-R14-G4-R8-O29:V30-U23-N26-D58-O49:Z1-F13:N31-V30:N16:N21*Z1-D45:N25

Schenkel 1991

• ḥtp-dỉ-nswt wsỉr ḫnty ỉmntjw nčr ˤȝ nb ȝbč̣w wp-wȝwt nb tȝ č̣sr

Allen 2000

• ḥtp-dj-nswt wsjr ḫnty jmntjw nṯr ˤȝ nb ȝbḏw wp-wȝwt nb tȝ ḏsr

Schneider 2003

• ḥtp-ḍỉ-nśwt wśỉr ḫnty ỉmntjw ncr ɗɹ nb ɹbc̣w wp-wɹwt nb tɹ c̣śr

 العلامات ذات المقطع الواحد

The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like الإنگليزية letters) which today we associate with the 26 glyphs listed below. (Note that the glyph associated with w/u also has a hieratic abbreviation.)

The traditional transliteration system shown on the left of the chart below is over a century old and is the one most commonly seen in texts. It includes several symbols such as alef (ꜣ) for sounds that were of unknown value at the time. Much progress has been made since, though there is still debate as to the details. For instance, it is now thought the alef (ꜣ) may have been an alveolar lateral approximant [l] in Old Egyptian but was lost by Middle Egyptian. The consonants transcribed as voiced (d, g, ḏ) may actually have been ejective or, less likely, pharyngealized like the Arabic emphatic consonants. A good description can be found in Allen.

Uniliteral signs
العلامة		النسخ الحرفي التقليدي			القيم الصوتية حسب ألن (2000)
			Say	الهوامش	المصرية القديمة	المصرية المتوسطة
𓄿	النسر المصري	ꜣ (3)	a	تسمى ألف أو همزة، a glottal stop	[l] أو [ɾ]	صامت، [j]، و [ʔ]
𓇋	القصب المزهر	ı͗	i/a	تسمى ياء	an initial or final vowel؛ أحياناً [j]
𓇌	عودين من القصب	y	y	تسمى ياء'	غير مسجل	[j]
𓏭	pair of strokes or river (?)
𓂝	الساعد	ꜥ (ʾ)	a	تسمى عين، a voiced pharyngeal fricative	ربما [d]	[ʕ]; [d] perhaps retained in some words and dialects
𓅱 or 𓏲	quail chick or its hieratic abbreviation	w	w/u	تسمى واو	[w] ~ [u]
𓃀	القدم	b	b		[b] ~ [β]
𓊪	reed mat or stool	p	p		aspirated [pʰ]
𓆑	الخفاش ذو القرنين	f	f		[f]
𓅓	البومة	m	m		[m]
𓈖	تموج المياه	n	n		[n]	[n]، أحياناً [l]
𓂋	فم الإنسان	r	r		[l] or [ɾ]	[ɾ]، أحياناً [l] (عادة [l] في بعض اللهجات)
𓉔	reed shelter	h	h		[h]
𓎛	twisted wick	ḥ	h	an emphatic h, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative	[ħ]
𓐍	sieve or placenta	ḫ	kh	a voiceless velar fricative	[x]
𓄡	animal belly and tail	ẖ	kh	a softer sound, a voiceless palatal fricative	[ç]
𓋴	folded cloth	s	s	Old Egyptian sound for "door bolt" is unknown, but perhaps was z or th	[s]	[s]
𓊃	door bolt				[z]
𓈙 or 𓈛 or 𓈜	garden pool	š	sh		[ʃ]
𓈎	hill slope	ḳ or q	k	an emphatic k, a voiceless uvular plosive	ejective [qʼ]
𓎡	basket with handle	k	k		aspirated [kʰ] in some words, palatalized [kʲ]
𓎼	jar stand	g	g		ejective [kʼ]
𓏏	رغيف الهبز	t	t		aspirated [tʰ]
𓍿	tethering rope or hobble	ṯ or tj	ch	as in English church	palatalized [tʲ] or [t͡ʃ]
𓂧	اليد	d	d		ejective [tʼ]
𓆓	الكوبرا	ḏ or dj	j	as in English judge	ejective [tʲʼ] or [t͡ʃʼ]

Gardiner lists several variations:

Uniliteral signs
العلامة		النسخ الحرفي التقليدي	الهوامش
𓎤	bag of linen	g	Appears in a few older words
𓐝	ربما إصبع	m	Originally biliteral ı͗m
𓋔	تاج مصر السفلى	n	Originally ideogram nt for 'crown of Lower Egypt'
𓍘	pestle	t	Originally biliteral tı͗

 انظر أيضاً

• Egyptian biliteral signs
• Egyptian triliteral signs

 المصادر

• Allen, James Paul. 2000. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Buurman, Jan, Nicolas-Christophe Grimal, Michael Hainsworth, Jochen Hallof, and Dirk van der Plas. 1988. Inventaire des signes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. 3rd ed. Informatique et Égyptologie 2. Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belle-Lettres (Nouvelle Série) 8. Paris: Institut de France.
• Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow, eds. 1926–1953. Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971).
• Gardiner, Alan Henderson. 1957. Egyptian Grammar; Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Griffith Institute.
• Hannig, Rainer. 1995. Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch–Deutsch: die Sprache der Pharaonen (2800–950 v. Chr.). Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt 64 (Hannig-Lexica 1). Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.
• Schenkel, Wolfgang. 1990. Einführung in die altägyptische Sprachwissenschaft. Orientalistische Einführungen. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
• Schneider, Thomas. 2003. "Etymologische Methode, die Historizität der Phoneme und das ägyptologische Transkriptionsalphabet." Lingua aegyptia: Journal of Egyptian Language Studies 11:187–199.

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 وصلات خارجية

• Manuel de Codage: technical details of electronic transliteration of Egyptian texts
• Unicode-based transliteration system adopted by the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Description and downloadable keyboard layouts.
• Online encoding converter for converting ASCII-based transliterations into Unicode.