تصفية الاستعمار في أفريقيا

(تم التحويل من Decolonisation of Africa)

decolonisation of Africa followed World War II, when colonised people agitated for independence and colonial powers withdrew their administrators from Africa.[1]

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Background

Areas of Africa controlled by European colonial powers in 1913, shown along with current national boundaries
  French
  German
  Independent

The "Scramble for Africa" between 1870 and 1900 ended with almost all of Africa being controlled by European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible, but wanting to avoid conflict amongst themselves, without regard to local differences leaders divided up the continent, formalising it in the Berlin Agreement in 1885.[2][3] By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (which had successfully resisted colonisation by Italy).[4] Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor.[5] Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers.[6]


Timeline

This table is the arranged by the earliest date of independence in this graph; 58 countries have seceded.

Country[7] Colonial name Colonial power[8] Independence date[9] First head of government Independence won through
جنوب أفريقيا Union of South Africa Cape Colony
Colony of Natal
Orange River Colony
قالب:Country data Transvaal Colony Transvaal Colony
 المملكة المتحدة 31 May 1910[10] Louis Botha South Africa Act 1909
 مملكة مصر[11] Sultanate of Egypt 28 February 1922[13] Fuad I Egyptian Revolution of 1919
Emirate of Cyrenaica British Military Administration 1 March 1949 Idris I Western Desert Campaign
United Kingdom of Libya British Military Administration
Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames
Emirate of Cyrenaica
 المملكة المتحدة
 فرنسا
Emirate of Cyrenaica
24 December 1951
Republic of Sudan Anglo-Egyptian Sudan  المملكة المتحدة[15]
Republic of Egypt
1 January 1956 Ismail al-Azhari Egyptian Revolution of 1952
Kingdom of Tunisia French Protectorate of Tunisia  فرنسا 20 March 1956 Muhammad VIII al-Amin
Habib Bourguiba
-[16]
 المغرب French Protectorate in Morocco
Tangier International Zone
Spanish Protectorate in Morocco
Spanish West Africa
Ifni
 فرنسا
 إسپانيا
2 March 1956[17]
7 April 1956
10 April 1958
4 January 1969
Mohammed V Ifni War
Ghana  ساحل الذهب  المملكة المتحدة[18] 6 March 1957 Kwame Nkrumah -
 غينيا قالب:Country data French West Africa  فرنسا 2 October 1958 Sékou Touré Guinean constitutional referendum, 1958
 الكاميرون French Cameroons
British Cameroons
 فرنسا
 المملكة المتحدة
1 January 1960[19]
1 June 1961
1 October 1961
Ahmadou Ahidjo -[20]
 توگو French Togoland  فرنسا 27 April 1960 Sylvanus Olympio -
Mali French West Africa 20 June 1960[21] Modibo Keita -
 السنغال Léopold Senghor -
Malagasy Republic French Madagascar 26 June 1960 Philibert Tsiranana
Republic of the Congo  الكونغو البلجيكي  بلجيكا 30 June 1960 Patrice Lumumba Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference
Somali Republic  الصومال البريطاني
Trust Territory of Somaliland
 المملكة المتحدة
 إيطاليا
26 June 1960
1 July 1960[22]
Aden Abdullah Osman Daar -
Republic of Dahomey قالب:Country data French West Africa  فرنسا 1 August 1960 Hubert Maga -
 النيجر 3 August 1960 Hamani Diori -
 ڤولتا العليا 5 August 1960 Maurice Yaméogo -
 ساحل العاج 7 August 1960 Félix Houphouët-Boigny -
 تشاد قالب:Country data French Equatorial Africa 11 August 1960 François Tombalbaye -
 جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى 13 August 1960 David Dacko -
 الكونغو 15 August 1960 Fulbert Youlou -
 الگابون 17 August 1960 Léon M'ba -
 نيجريا Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria
British Cameroons
 المملكة المتحدة 1 October 1960
1 June 1961
1 October 1961[23]
Nnamdi Azikiwe -
 موريتانيا قالب:Country data French Equatorial Africa  فرنسا 28 November 1960 Moktar Ould Daddah -
 سيراليون Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone  المملكة المتحدة 27 April 1961 Milton Margai -
 تنجانيقا[24] Tanganyika Territory 9 December 1961 Julius Nyerere -
قالب:Country data Kingdom of Burundi Ruanda-Urundi  بلجيكا 1 July 1962 Mwambutsa IV of Burundi -
Republic of Rwanda Grégoire Kayibanda Rwandan Revolution
 الجزائر French Algeria  فرنسا 3 July 1962 Ahmed Ben Bella Algerian War
Uganda Protectorate of Uganda  المملكة المتحدة 9 October 1962 Milton Obote -
Kenya Colony and Protectorate of Kenya 12 December 1963 Jomo Kenyatta -[25]
Sultanate of Zanzibar[24] Sultanate of Zanzibar 10 December 1963 Jamshid bin Abdullah -[26]
 ملاوي  نياسالاند 6 July 1964 Hastings Kamuzu Banda -
 زامبيا  روديسيا الشمالية 24 October 1964 Kenneth Kaunda -
The Gambia Gambia Colony and Protectorate 18 February 1965 Dawda Kairaba Jawara -
 روديسيا
 زيمبابوي
 روديسيا الجنوبية 11 November 1965
17 April 1980[27]
Ian Smith
Robert Mugabe
Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence
Lancaster House Agreement
 بتسوانا Bechuanaland Protectorate 30 September 1966 Seretse Khama -
Kingdom of Lesotho Territory of Basutoland 4 October 1966 Leabua Jonathan -
Mauritius Mauritius 12 March 1968 Veerasamy Ringadoo -
 سوازيلاند Swaziland 6 September 1968 Sobhuza II -
Republic of Equatorial Guinea Spanish Territories of the Gulf of Guinea  إسپانيا 12 October 1968 Francisco Macías Nguema -
 غينيا-بيساو Overseas Province of Guinea  الپرتغال 24 September 1973 Luís Cabral Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
People's Republic of Mozambique State of Mozambique 25 June 1975 Samora Machel Mozambican War of Independence
Republic of Cape Verde Overseas Province of Cape Verde 5 July 1975 Aristides Pereira Guinea-Bissau War of Independence[28]
Union of the Comoros French Comoros  فرنسا 6 July 1975 Ahmed Abdallah Comorian independence referendum, 1974
 ساو تومه وپرنسيپه Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe  الپرتغال 12 July 1975 Manuel Pinto da Costa -
People's Republic of Angola State of Angola 11 November 1975 Agostinho Neto Angolan War of Independence
Republic of Seychelles Seychelles  المملكة المتحدة 29 June 1976 James Richard Marie Mancham -
جيبوتي Republic of Djibouti فرنسا French Territory of the Afars and the Issas فرنسا French Fifth Republic 27 June 1977 Hassan Gouled Aptidon Afars and Issas independence referendum, 1977
 الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية‎[30] Spanish Sahara
Southern Provinces
 إسپانيا
 المغرب
27 February 1976
independence not yet effectuated
El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed
Mohamed Abdelaziz
Western Sahara War
Western Sahara conflict


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See also

Notes

  1. ^ Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-540-9.
  2. ^ "Berlin Conference of 1884-1885". www.oxfordreference.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  3. ^ "A Brief History of the Berlin Conference". teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  4. ^ Evans, Alistair. "Countries in Africa Considered Never Colonized". africanhistory.about.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  5. ^ Hunt, Michael (2017). The World Transformed 1945 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 264. ISBN 9780199371020.
  6. ^ [1], DECOLONISATION OF AFRICA. (2017). HISTORY AND GENERAL STUDIES.
  7. ^ Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonized countries.
  8. ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust Territories.
  9. ^ The dates of decolonization for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes.
  10. ^ The Union of South Africa was constituted through the South Africa Act entering into force on 31 May 1910. On 11 December 1931 it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster which was followed by transformation into republic after the 1960 referendum. Afterwards, South Africa was under apartheid regime until elections resulting from the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa on 27 April 1994 when Nelson Mandela became president.
  11. ^ Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
  12. ^ King, Joan Wucher (1989) [First published 1984]. Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-977-424-213-7.
  13. ^ On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence with the exception of four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[12] The Anglo–Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until the 1952 revolution. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956.
  14. ^ Robert O. Collins, A History of Modern Sudan
  15. ^ Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.[14]
  16. ^ See Tunisian independence.
  17. ^ Cape Juby was ceded by Spain to Morocco on 2 April 1958. Ifni was returned from Spain to Morocco on 4 January 1969.
  18. ^ The British Togoland mandate and trust territory was integrated into Gold Coast colony on 13 December 1956.
  19. ^ After the French Cameroun mandate and trust territory gained independence it was joined by part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
  20. ^ Minor armed insurgency from Union of the Peoples of Cameroon.
  21. ^ Senegal and French Sudan gained independence on 20 June 1960 as the Mali Federation, which dissolved a few months later into present day Senegal and Mali.
  22. ^ The Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) united with the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic (Somalia).
  23. ^ Part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961 joined Nigeria. The other part of British Cameroons joined the previously decolonized French Cameroun mandate and territory.
  24. ^ أ ب After both gained independence Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged on 26 April 1964.
  25. ^ See the Mau Mau Uprising
  26. ^ The Sultanate of Zanzibar would later be overthrown within a month of sovereignty by the Zanzibar Revolution.
  27. ^ Due the Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority led government. The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, under the name Zimbabwe.
  28. ^ Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence were linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
  29. ^ UN General Assembly Resolution 34/37 and UN General Assembly Resolution 35/19
  30. ^ The Spanish colonial rule de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Spanish Sahara), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexed the entire territory in 1979). The decolonization of Western Sahara is still pending, while a declaration of independence has been proclaimed by the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, which controls only a small portion east of the Moroccan Wall. The UN still considers Spain the legal administrating country of the whole territory,[29] awaiting the outcome of the ongoing Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. However, the de facto administrator is Morocco (see United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories).

== المراجع ==*Ali A. Mazrui ed. "General History of Africa" vol. VIII, UNESCO, 1993

  • Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002).
  • Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonization (Routledge, 2014).
  • Cooper, Frederick. Decolonization and African society: The labor question in French and British Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
  • Michael Crowder. "The Story of Nigeria" Faber and Faber, London, 1978 (1962)
  • Dávila, Jerry. "Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980." Duke University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0822348559
  • Gordon, April A. and Donald L. Gordon, Lynne Riener. Understanding Contemporary Africa (London, 1996).
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonization (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp*Kevin Shillington "History of Africa" St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)
  • Khapoya, Vincent B. The African Experience (1994)
  • White, Nicholas. Decolonization: the British experience since 1945 (Routledge, 2014).

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