اللغة السويدية

Swedish
svenska
النطق	[ˈsvɛ̂nːska] استمع
موطنها	Sweden, Finland, formerly Estonia
العرق	Swedes, Finland-Swedes
الناطقون الأصليون	Native: 10 million (2012–2021)e25 L2 speakers: 3 million
عائلة اللغات	الهندو-اوروپية Germanic North Germanic East Scandinavian Swedish
الصيغ المبكرة	Old Norse Old East Norse Old Swedish Modern Swedish
نظام الكتابة	Latin (Swedish alphabet) Swedish Braille
الصيغ المعلـَّمة	Tecknad svenska (obsolete), Swedish Sign Language, Finland-Swedish Sign Language
الوضع الرسمي
لغة رسمية في	Finland Sweden Åland European Union Nordic Council
ينظمها	Swedish Language Council (in Sweden) Swedish Academy (in Sweden) Institute for the Languages of Finland (in Finland)
أكواد اللغات
ISO 639-2	swe
ISO 639-2	swe
ISO 639-3	swe
Glottolog	swed1254
Linguasphere	52-AAA-ck to -cw
Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by the majority of the population (Sweden, Åland, Western Finland)      Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by a minority of the population (Finland)

اللغة السويدية هي اللغة الرسمية في السويد, وهي تشبه اللغة النرويجية إلى حد قريب جدا واللغة الدنماركية ألى حد أبعد بقليل، واللغة الإنكليزية والألمانية إلى حد بعيد. اللغة الثانية في السويد هي الانجليزية, حيث ان اغلب السويديون يتكلمون الانجليزية بطلاقة. وهناك الكثير من السويديين يتكلون عدة لغات عدا السويدية ، كالألمانية والفرنسية والإنكليزية.

 History

المقالة الرئيسية: History of Swedish

 Old Norse

المقالة الرئيسية: Old Norse

الانتشار التقريبي للنورسية القديمة واللغات المرتبطة بها في مطلع القرن العاشر:

  اللهجة النورسية الغربية القديمة

  اللهجة النورسية الشرقية القديمة

  Old Gutnish dialect

  الإنگليزية القديمة

  قوطية القرم

  لغات جرمانية أخرى التي مازالت تحتفظ ببعض الفهم المتبادل مع النورسية القديمة

In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, evolved into Old Norse. This language underwent more changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects: Old West Norse (Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). The dialects of Old East Norse spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish, while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as "runic" because the main body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, which had only 16 letters. Because the number of runes was limited, some runes were used for a range of phonemes, such as the rune for the vowel u, which was also used for the vowels o, ø and y, and the rune for i, also used for e.

From 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark, creating a series of minor dialectal boundaries, or isoglosses, ranging from Zealand in the south to Norrland, Österbotten and northwestern Finland in the north.

An early change that separated Runic Danish from the other dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é, as in stæinn to sténn "stone". This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin. There was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr "dead". This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr. Moreover, the øy diphthong changed into a long, close ø, as in the Old Norse word for "island". By the end of the period, these innovations had affected most of the Runic Swedish-speaking area as well, with the exception of the dialects spoken north and east of Mälardalen where the diphthongs still exist in remote areas.

 Old Swedish

The initial page of the first complete copy of Västgötalagen, the law code of Västergötland, from 1280ح. 1280. It is one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the Latin script.

المقالة الرئيسية: Old Swedish

Old Swedish (Swedish: fornsvenska) is the term used for the medieval Swedish language. The start date is usually set to 1225 since this is the year that Västgötalagen ("the Västgöta Law") is believed to have been compiled for the first time. It is among the most important documents of the period written in Latin script and the oldest Swedish law codes. Old Swedish is divided into äldre fornsvenska (1225–1375) and yngre fornsvenska (1375–1526), "older" and "younger" Old Swedish. Important outside influences during this time came with the firm establishment of the Christian church and various monastic orders, introducing many Greek and Latin loanwords. With the rise of Hanseatic power in the late 13th and early 14th century, Middle Low German became very influential. The Hanseatic league provided Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of Low German-speaking immigrants. Many became quite influential members of Swedish medieval society, and brought terms from their native languages into the vocabulary. Besides a great number of loanwords for such areas as warfare, trade and administration, general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions were imported. The League also brought a certain measure of influence from Danish (at the time Swedish and Danish were much more similar than today).

Early Old Swedish was markedly different from the modern language in that it had a more complex case structure and also retained the original Germanic three-gender system. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four cases; besides the extant nominative, there were also the genitive (later possessive), dative and accusative. The gender system resembled that of modern German, having masculine, feminine and neuter genders. The masculine and feminine genders were later merged into a common gender with the definite suffix -en and the definite article den, in contrast with the neuter gender equivalents -et and det. The verb system was also more complex: it included subjunctive and imperative moods and verbs were conjugated according to person as well as number. By the 16th century, the case and gender systems of the colloquial spoken language and the profane literature had been largely reduced to the two cases and two genders of modern Swedish.

A transitional change of the Latin script in the Nordic countries was to spell the letter combination "ae" as æ – and sometimes as a' – though it varied between persons and regions. The combination "ao" was similarly rendered a^o, and "oe" became o^e. These three were later to evolve into the separate letters ä, å and ö. The first time the new letters were used in print was in Aff dyäffwlsens frästilse ("By the Devil's temptation") published by Johan Gerson in 1495.

 Modern Swedish

المقالة الرئيسية: Modern Swedish

Front page of Gustav Vasa's Bible from 1541, using Fraktur. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in Uppsala. 1541".

Modern Swedish (Swedish: nysvenska) begins with the advent of the printing press and the European Reformation. After assuming power, the new monarch Gustav Vasa ordered a Swedish translation of the Bible. The New Testament was published in 1526, followed by a full Bible translation in 1541, usually referred to as the Gustav Vasa Bible, a translation deemed so successful and influential that, with revisions incorporated in successive editions, it remained the most common Bible translation until 1917. The main translators were Laurentius Andreæ and the brothers Laurentius and Olaus Petri.

The Vasa Bible is often considered to be a reasonable compromise between old and new; while not adhering to the colloquial spoken language of its day, it was not overly conservative in its use of archaic forms. It was a major step towards a more consistent Swedish orthography. It established the use of the vowels "å", "ä", and "ö", and the spelling "ck" in place of "kk", distinguishing it clearly from the Danish Bible, perhaps intentionally, given the ongoing rivalry between the countries. All three translators came from central Sweden, which is generally seen as adding specific Central Swedish features to the new Bible.

Though it might seem as if the Bible translation set a very powerful precedent for orthographic standards, spelling actually became more inconsistent during the remainder of the century. It was not until the 17th century that spelling began to be discussed, around the time when the first grammars were written. Capitalization during this time was not standardized. It depended on the authors and their background. Those influenced by German capitalized all nouns, while others capitalized more sparsely. It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized owing to the Gothic or blackletter typeface that was used to print the Bible. This typeface was in use until the mid-18th century, when it was gradually replaced with a Latin typeface (often Antiqua).

Some important changes in sound during the Modern Swedish period were the gradual assimilation of several different consonant clusters into the fricative [ʃ] and later into [ɧ]. There was also the gradual softening of [ɡ] and [k] into [j] and the fricative [ɕ] before front vowels. The velar fricative [ɣ] was also transformed into the corresponding plosive [ɡ].

August Strindberg, one of the most influential writers in modern Swedish literature

 Contemporary Swedish

A sign on the wall of a Swedish hotel, using both the recommended dem and the colloquial dom for the word "them" on the same sign.

The period that includes Swedish as it is spoken today is termed nusvenska (lit., "Now-Swedish") in linguistics, and started in the last decades of the 19th century. It saw a democratization of the language with a less formal written form that approached the spoken one. The growth of a state school system also led to the evolution of so-called boksvenska (literally, "Book Swedish"), especially among the working classes, where spelling to some extent influenced pronunciation, particularly in official contexts. With the industrialization and urbanization of Sweden well under way by the last decades of the 19th century, a new breed of authors made their mark on Swedish literature. Many scholars, politicians and other public figures had a great influence on the emerging national language, among them prolific authors like the poet Gustaf Fröding, Nobel laureate Selma Lagerlöf and radical writer and playwright August Strindberg. In Finland, Finland-Swedish literature emerged as a separate branch.

It was during the 20th century that a common, standardized national language became available to all Swedes. The orthography finally stabilized and became almost completely uniform, with some minor deviations, by the time of the spelling reform of 1906. With the exception of plural forms of verbs and a slightly different syntax, particularly in the written language, the language was the same as the Swedish of today. The plural verb forms appeared decreasingly in formal writing into the 1950s, when their use was removed from all official recommendations.

A very significant change in Swedish occurred in the late 1960s with the so-called du-reformen. Previously the proper way to address people of the same or higher social status had been by title and surname. The use of herr ("Mr" or "Sir"), fru ("Mrs" or "Ma'am") or fröken ("Miss") was considered the only acceptable way to begin conversation with strangers of unknown occupation, academic title or military rank. The fact that the listener should preferably be referred to in the third person tended to further complicate spoken communication between members of society. In the early 20th century an unsuccessful attempt was made to replace the insistence on titles with ni—the standard second person plural pronoun)—analogous to the French vous (see T-V distinction). Ni wound up being used as a slightly less familiar form of du, the second person singular pronoun, used to address people of lower social status. With the liberalization and radicalization of Swedish society in the 1950s and 1960s, these class distinctions became less important and du became the standard, even in formal and official contexts. Though the reform was not an act of any centralized political decree but rather the result of sweeping change in social attitudes, it was completed in just a few years, from the late 1960s to early 1970s. The use of ni as a polite form of address is sometimes encountered today in both the written and spoken language, particularly among older speakers.

 Geographic distribution

Swedish is the sole official national language of Sweden, and one of two in Finland (alongside Finnish). As of 2006, it was the sole native language of 83% of Swedish residents. In 2007, around 5.5% (c. 290,000) of the population of Finland were native speakers of Swedish, partially due to a decline following the Russian annexation of Finland after the Finnish War 1808–1809. The Fenno-Swedish-speaking minority is concentrated in the coastal areas and archipelagos of southern and western Finland. In some of these areas, Swedish is the predominant language; in 19 municipalities, 16 of which are located in Åland, Swedish is the sole official language. Åland county is an autonomous region of Finland.

According to a rough estimation, as of 2010 there were up to 300,000 Swedish-speakers living outside Sweden and Finland. The largest populations were in the United States (up to 100,000), the UK, Spain and Germany (c. 30,000 each) and a large proportion of the remaining 100,000 in the Scandinavian countries, France, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia. Over three million people speak Swedish as a second language, with about 2,410,000 of those in Finland. According to a survey by the European Commission, 44% of respondents from Finland who did not have Swedish as a native language considered themselves to be proficient enough in Swedish to hold a conversation. Due to the close relation between the Scandinavian languages, a considerable proportion of speakers of Danish and especially Norwegian are able to understand Swedish.

 Phonology

المقالة الرئيسية: Swedish phonology

The vowel phonemes of Central Standard Swedish

colspan=2 قالب:Dsh	Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ŋ
Plosive	voiceless	p	t		k
	voiced	b	d		ɡ
Continuant	voiceless	f	s	ɕ	ɧ	h
	voiced	v	l	j
Rhotic			r

 النحو

المقالة الرئيسية: Swedish grammar

 Sample

Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Swedish

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Swedish:

Alla människor är födda fria och lika i värdighet och rättigheter. De har utrustats med förnuft och samvete och bör handla gentemot varandra i en anda av gemenskap.

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Excerpt from Barfotabarn (1933), by Nils Ferlin (1898–1961):

Original	Free, prosaic translation
Du har tappat ditt ord och din papperslapp,	"You have lost your word and your paper note,
du barfotabarn i livet.	you barefooted child in life.
Så sitter du åter på handlar'ns trapp	So you sit on the porch of the grocer anew
och gråter så övergivet.	and cry so abandoned.
Vad var det för ord – var det långt eller kort,	What word was it – was it long or short,
var det väl eller illa skrivet?	was it well or poorly written?
Tänk efter nu – förr'n vi föser dig bort,	Think twice now – before we shove you away,
du barfotabarn i livet.	you barefooted child in life."

 See also

• Languages of Sweden
• Languages of Finland
• Swedish as a foreign language
• Swenglish

 References

 Citations

• Andersson, Erik (2002), "Swedish", in König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan, The Germanic Languages, Routledge language family descriptions, Routledge, pp. 271–312, ISBN 978-0-415-28079-2 
• Bergman, Gösta (1984) (in sv), Kortfattad svensk språkhistoria, Prisma Magnum (4th ed.), Stockholm: Prisma, ISBN 978-91-518-1747-7, OCLC 13259382 
• Bolander, Maria (2002) (in sv), Funktionell svensk grammatik, Stockholm: Liber, ISBN 978-91-47-05054-3, OCLC 67138445 
• Crystal, David (1999), The Penguin dictionary of language (2nd ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-051416-2, OCLC 59441560 
• Dahl, Östen (2000) (in sv), Språkets enhet och mångfald, Lund: Studentlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-01158-5, OCLC 61100963 
• Dahl, Östen; Edlund, Lars-Erik, eds. (2010) (in sv), Sveriges nationalatlas. Språken i Sverige, Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien, ISBN 978-91-87-76057-0 
• Elert, Claes-Christian (2000) (in sv), Allmän och svensk fonetik (8th ed.), Stockholm: Norstedts Akademiska Förlag, ISBN 978-91-1-300939-1 
• Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0, OCLC 40305532 
• Engstrand, Olle (2004) (in sv), Fonetikens grunder, Lund: Studentlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-04238-1, OCLC 66026795 
• Ferlin, Nils (1976) (in sv), Barfotabarn, Stockholm: Bonnier, ISBN 978-91-0-024187-2 
• Garlén, Claes (1988) (in sv), Svenskans fonologi, Lund: Studentlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-28151-3, OCLC 67420810 
• Granberry, Julian (1991), Essential Swedish Grammar, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-26953-5, OCLC 23692877 
• Haugen, Einar (2009). "Danish, Norwegian and Swedish". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. New York: Routledge. pp. 125–144. ISBN 978-0-415-35339-7.
• Hultman, Tor G. (2003) (in sv), Svenska Akademiens språklära, Stockholm: Norstedts, ISBN 978-9172273511, OCLC 55849724 
• Josephson, Olle (2005) (in sv), Ju: ifrågasatta självklarheter om svenskan, engelskan och alla andra språk i Sverige (2nd ed.), Stockholm: Nordstedts ordbok, ISBN 978-91-7227-446-4 
• Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt (1994) (in sv), Ungdomsspråk, Uppsala: Hallgren & Fallgren, ISBN 978-91-7382-718-8, OCLC 60994967 
• Leinonen, Therese (2011), "Aggregate analysis of vowel pronunciation in Swedish dialects", Oslo Studies in Language 3 (2), doi:10.5617/osla.101, https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/osla/article/view/101, retrieved on 20 March 2013 
• Nationalencyklopedin, online edition Archived 1 أبريل 2014 at the Wayback Machine (in سويدية)
• Parkvall, Mikael (2009), "Sveriges språk. Vem talar vad och var?" (in sv), RAPPLING 1. Rapporter Från Institutionen för Lingvistik Vid Stockholms Universitet., http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf, retrieved on 30 January 2015 
• Pettersson, Gertrud (1996) (in sv), Svenska språket under sjuhundra år: en historia om svenskan och dess utforskande, Lund: Studentlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-48221-7, OCLC 36130929 
• Språkrådet (2008) (in sv), Svenska skrivregler (3rd ed.), Stockholm: Liber, ISBN 978-91-47-08460-9, https://archive.org/details/svenskaskrivregl0000unse 
• Svenska språknämnden (2000) (in sv), Svenska skrivregler (2nd ed.), Stockholm: Liber (published 2002), ISBN 978-91-47-04974-5 
• Svensson, Lars (1974) (in sv), Nordisk paleografi: Handbok med transkriberade och kommenterade skriftprov, Lund: Studentlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-05391-2, OCLC 1303752 
• Wessén, Elias (1998) (in sv), Våra ord: deras uttal och ursprung : kortfattad etymologisk ordbok (2nd ed.), Stockholm: Norstedts, ISBN 978-91-7227-053-4 

 Further reading

• Swedish Essentials of Grammar Viberg, Åke; et al. (1991) Chicago: Passport Books. ISBN 0-8442-8539-0
• Swedish: An Essential Grammar. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2000). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16048-0.
• Swedish: A Comprehensive Grammar Second Edition. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2003). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27884-8.
• Svenska utifrån. Schematic grammar-Swedish structures and everyday phrases Byrman, Gunilla; Holm, Britta; (1998) ISBN 91-520-0519-4.

 External links

Wikipedia

اللغة السويدية edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

• Swadesh list of Swedish basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
• Swedish-English/Swedish-Arabic/Swedish-Russian/Swedish-Spanish Dictionaries from Språkrådet – Institute for Language and Folklore
• People's dictionary
• Online version of Svenska Akademiens ordbok (in سويدية)
• Pronunciation of Swedish dialects