نظرية الخلق

سلسلة مقالات حول نظرية الخلق

تاريخ نظرية الخلق نظرية الخلق الإسلامية نظرية الخلق في الكتاب المقدس

مذاهب الخلق : - علوم الخلق نظرية خلق الأرض الفتية نظرية خلق الأرض القديمة نظرية خلق أومفالوس مركزية الأرض الحديثة نظرية الخلق المتطورة تطور إلهي نظرية الخلق الجديدة نظرية الخلق الإسلامية التصميم الذكي - حركة التصميم الذكي

نزاعات: الخلق مقابل التطور

نظريات علمية متعلقة بالموضوع: نظرية الإنفجار العظيم نظرية التطور كون ثابت كون نصف-ثابت

نظرية الخلق (خلق السموات والأرض) creationism هو المعتقد المشترك بين جميع الديانات الإبراهيمية بأن الإنسان والحياة والأرض و الكون أيضا نشأ نتيجة تدخل و إبداع رباني إلهي من قبل ذات فوق-طبيعية تدعى الله. هذا التدخل الإلهي يمكن ان يكون خلقا مباشرا من عدم (ex nihilo) أو انبثاق للنظام و الترتيب من شواش بدائي (demiurge) كما تنص بعض الأساطير اليونانية . يعتبر معظم المؤمنون في الدينات السماوية ان نظرية الخلق لا تتعارض مع الحقائق العلمية .

تتعارض هذه النظرة الدينية مع نظرة أخرى لتفسير الأمور و الظواهر في سياق العلم تدعى الطبيعية التي تحاول ان تنظر للأمور في سياق مادي أو إلحادي دون أي اعتبار لوجود للنظرة الدينية أو الروحانية.

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 الأنواع

The main general types are listed below.

Comparison of major creationist views

	Humanity	Biological species	Earth	Age of Universe
Young Earth creationism	Directly created by God.	Directly created by God. Macroevolution does not occur.	Less than 10,000 years old. Reshaped by global flood.	Less than 10,000 years old, but some hold this view only for our Solar System.
Gap creationism			Scientifically accepted age. Reshaped by global flood.	Scientifically accepted age.
Progressive creationism	Directly created by God, based on primate anatomy.	Direct creation + evolution. No single common ancestor.	Scientifically accepted age. No global flood.	Scientifically accepted age.
Intelligent design	Proponents hold various beliefs. (For example, Michael Behe accepts evolution from primates.)	Divine intervention at some point in the past, as evidenced by what intelligent-design creationists call "irreducible complexity."	Some adherents accept common descent, others not. Some claim the existence of Earth is the result of divine intervention.	Scientifically accepted age.
Theistic evolution (evolutionary creationism)	Evolution from primates.	Evolution from single common ancestor.	Scientifically accepted age. No global flood.	Scientifically accepted age.

 Young Earth creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Young Earth creationism

The Institute for Creation Research (ICR) is a young-Earth creationist organization.

 Old Earth creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Old Earth creationism

Old Earth creationism holds that the physical universe was created by God, but that the creation event described in the Book of Genesis is to be taken figuratively. This group generally believes that the age of the universe and the age of the Earth are as described by astronomers and geologists, but that details of modern evolutionary theory are questionable.

Old Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types:

 Gap creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Gap creationism

 Day-age creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Day-age creationism

Day-age creationism states that the "six days" of the Book of Genesis are not ordinary 24-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each "day" could be the equivalent of millions, or billions of years of human time). The physicist Gerald Schroeder is one such proponent of this view. This version of creationism often states that the Hebrew word "yôm," in the context of Genesis 1, can be properly interpreted as "age."

 Progressive creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Progressive creationism

Progressive creationism holds that species have changed or evolved in a process continuously guided by God, with various ideas as to how the process operated—though it is generally taken that God directly intervened in the natural order at key moments in Earth history. This view accepts most of modern physical science including the age of the Earth, but rejects much of modern evolutionary biology or looks to it for evidence that evolution by natural selection alone is incorrect. Organizations such as Reasons To Believe, founded by Hugh Ross, promote this version of creationism.

Progressive creationism can be held in conjunction with hermeneutic approaches to the Genesis creation narrative such as the day-age creationism or framework/metaphoric/poetic views.

 Philosophic and scientific creationism

 Creation science

المقالة الرئيسية: Creation science

 Neo-creationism

المقالة الرئيسية: Neo-creationism

 Intelligent design

المقالة الرئيسية: Intelligent design

Intelligent design (ID) is the pseudoscientific view that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection."

 Geocentrism

المقالة الرئيسية: Geocentric model

 Omphalos hypothesis

المقالة الرئيسية: Omphalos hypothesis

 Religious views

 Islam

المقالة الرئيسية: Islamic views on evolution

Islamic creationism is the belief that the universe (including humanity) was directly created by God as explained in the Qur'an. It usually views the Book of Genesis as a corrupted version of God's message. The creation myths in the Qur'an are vaguer and allow for a wider range of interpretations similar to those in other Abrahamic religions.

 Bahá'í Faith

المقالة الرئيسية: Bahai Faith and science § Creation

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 Christianity

للمزيد من المعلومات: Genesis creation narrative and creation–evolution controversy

 Hinduism

المقالة الرئيسية: Hindu views on evolution

Hindu creationists claim that species of plants and animals are material forms adopted by pure consciousness which live an endless cycle of births and rebirths. Ronald Numbers says that: "Hindu Creationists have insisted on the antiquity of humans, who they believe appeared fully formed as long, perhaps, as trillions of years ago." Hindu creationism is a form of old Earth creationism, according to Hindu creationists the universe may even be older than billions of years. These views are based on the Vedas, the creation myths of which depict an extreme antiquity of the universe and history of the Earth.

 Judaism

المقالة الرئيسية: Jewish views on evolution

For Orthodox Jews who seek to reconcile discrepancies between science and the creation myths in the Bible, the notion that science and the Bible should even be reconciled through traditional scientific means is questioned. To these groups, science is as true as the Torah and if there seems to be a problem, epistemological limits are to blame for apparently irreconcilable points. They point to discrepancies between what is expected and what actually is to demonstrate that things are not always as they appear. They note that even the root word for "world" in the Hebrew language—עולם (Olam)—means hidden—נעלם (Neh-Eh-Lahm). Just as they know from the Torah that God created man and trees and the light on its way from the stars in their observed state, so too can they know that the world was created in its over the six days of Creation that reflects progression to its currently-observed state, with the understanding that physical ways to verify this may eventually be identified. This knowledge has been advanced by Rabbi Dovid Gottlieb, former philosophy professor at Johns Hopkins University. Also, relatively old Kabbalistic sources from well before the scientifically apparent age of the universe was first determined are in close concord with modern scientific estimates of the age of the universe, according to Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, and based on Sefer Temunah, an early kabbalistic work attributed to the first-century Tanna Nehunya ben HaKanah. Many kabbalists accepted the teachings of the Sefer HaTemunah, including the medieval Jewish scholar Nahmanides, his close student Isaac ben Samuel of Acre, and David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra. Other parallels are derived, among other sources, from Nahmanides, who expounds that there was a Neanderthal-like species with which Adam mated (he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically). Reform Judaism does not take the Torah as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic or open-ended work.

 Prevalence

المقالة الرئيسية: Level of support for evolution and Creationism by country

Views on human evolution in various countries 2008

Most vocal literalist creationists are from the US, and strict creationist views are much less common in other developed countries. According to a study published in Science, a survey of the US, Turkey, Japan and Europe showed that public acceptance of evolution is most prevalent in Iceland, Denmark and Sweden at 80% of the population. There seems to be no significant correlation between believing in evolution and understanding evolutionary science.

 United States

Anti-evolution car in Athens, Georgia

 Education controversies

The Truth fish, one of the many creationist responses to the Darwin fish

المقالة الرئيسية: Creation–evolution controversy

In the US, creationism has become centered in the political controversy over creation and evolution in public education, and whether teaching creationism in science classes conflicts with the separation of church and state. Currently, the controversy comes in the form of whether advocates of the intelligent design movement who wish to "Teach the Controversy" in science classes have conflated science with religion.

People for the American Way polled 1500 North Americans about the teaching of evolution and creationism in November and December 1999. They found that most North Americans were not familiar with Creationism, and most North Americans had heard of evolution, but many did not fully understand the basics of the theory. The main findings were:

Americans believe that: Public schools should teach evolution only    20% Only evolution should be taught in science classes, religious explanations can be discussed in another class    17% Creationism can be discussed in science class as a 'belief,' not a scientific theory    29% Creationism and evolution should be taught as 'scientific theories' in science class    13% Only Creationism should be taught    16% Teach both evolution and Creationism, but unsure how to do so    4% No opinion    1%

 Criticism

 Christian criticism

Most Christians disagree with the teaching of creationism as an alternative to evolution in schools.

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 Scientific criticism

المقالة الرئيسية: Creation–evolution controversy

Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, empirical evidence, and the development of theories that yield testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena. By contrast, creationism is often based on literal interpretations of the narratives of particular religious texts. Creationist beliefs involve purported forces that lie outside of nature, such as supernatural intervention, and often do not allow predictions at all. Therefore, these can neither be confirmed nor disproved by scientists. However, many creationist beliefs can be framed as testable predictions about phenomena such as the age of the Earth, its geological history and the origins, distributions and relationships of living organisms found on it. Early science incorporated elements of these beliefs, but as science developed these beliefs were gradually falsified and were replaced with understandings based on accumulated and reproducible evidence that often allows the accurate prediction of future results.

 Organizations

Creationism (in general) American Scientific Affiliation Christians in Science Young Earth creationism Answers in Genesis, a group promoting young Earth creationism Creation Ministries International, an organisation promoting biblical creation Creation Research Society Institute for Creation Research The Way of the Master Old Earth creationism Old Earth Ministries (OEM), formerly Answers In Creation (AIC), led by Greg Neyman Reasons to Believe, led by Hugh Ross

Intelligent design Access Research Network Centre for Intelligent Design Center for Science and Culture, a subsidiary of the Discovery Institute Evolutionary creationism BioLogos Foundation Evolution National Center for Science Education TalkOrigins Archive The Panda's Thumb (blog) ScienceBlogs Why Evolution is True (Jerry Coyne's website)

 See also

• Biblical inerrancy
• Biogenesis
• Evolution of complexity
• Flying Spaghetti Monster
• History of creationism
• Religious cosmology
• Human timeline
• Life timeline
• Nature timeline

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 Further reading

• Anderson, Bernard W. (1967). Creation versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the Bible. New York: Association Press. LCCN 67014578. OCLC 671184.
• Anderson, Bernhard W., ed. (1984). Creation in the Old Testament. Issues in Religion and Theology. Vol. 6. Introduction by Bernhard W. Anderson. Philadelphia; London: Fortress Press; Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ISBN 978-0-8006-1768-4. LCCN 83048910. OCLC 10374840.
• Barbour, Ian G. (1997). Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues (1st HarperCollins revised ed.). San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-060938-2. LCCN 97006294. OCLC 36417827.
• Barbour, Ian G. (2000). When Science Meets Religion (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-060381-6. LCCN 99055579. OCLC 42752713.
• Clark, Kelly James (2014). Religion and the Sciences of Origins: Historical and Contemporary Discussions (1st ed.). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-41483-0. LCCN 2014466739. OCLC 889777438.
• Darwin, Charles (1958). Barlow, Nora (ed.). The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809-1882: With original omissions restored; Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his grand-daughter, Nora Barlow. London: Collins. LCCN 93017940. OCLC 869541868. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
• Kaplan, Aryeh (1993). Immortality, Resurrection, and the Age of the Universe: A Kabbalistic View. With an appendix Derush Or ha-Hayyim by Israel Lipschitz; translated and annotated by Yaakov Elman. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House in association with the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists. ISBN 978-0-88125-345-0. LCCN 92036917. OCLC 26800167.
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• Leeming, David Adams; Leeming, Margaret (1995). A Dictionary of Creation Myths. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510275-8. LCCN 95039961. OCLC 33160980.
• Primack, Joel R.; Abrams, Nancy Ellen (Jan–Feb 1995). "In a Beginning...: Quantum Cosmology and Kabbalah" (PDF). Tikkun. 10 (1): 66–73. ISSN 0887-9982. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
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 External links

• "Creationism" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Michael Ruse
• "How Creationism Works" at HowStuffWorks by Julia Layton
• "TIMELINE: Evolution, Creationism and Intelligent Design" – Focuses on major historical and recent events in the scientific and political debate
• "Evolution and Creationism: A Guide for Museum Docents" (PDF). (204 KB) by Warren D. Allmon, Director of the Museum of the Earth
• "What is creationism?" at talk.origins by Mark Isaak
• "The Creation/Evolution Continuum" by Eugenie Scott
• "15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense" by John Rennie, editor in chief of Scientific American magazine
• Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)