ساميزدات

ساميزدات
Russian samizdat and photo negatives of unofficial literature in the USSR.jpg
Russian samizdat and photo negatives of unofficial literature
الروسيةсамиздат
الرومنةساميزدات
المعنى الحرفينشر ذاتي

ساميزدات (روسية: самизда́т؛ Samizdat ؛ حرفياً "نشر ذاتي") was a form of dissident activity across the Eastern Bloc in which individuals reproduced censored and underground makeshift publications, often by hand, and passed the documents from reader to reader. The practice of manual reproduction was widespread, due to the fact that most typewriters and printing devices were inventorized and required permission to access. This grassroots practice to evade official Soviet censorship was fraught with danger, as harsh punishments were meted out to people caught possessing or copying censored materials.

Vladimir Bukovsky summarized it as follows:

"Samizdat: I write it myself, edit it myself, censor it myself, publish it myself, distribute it myself, and spend time in prison for it myself."[1]

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أصل الاسم وتنويعات

Etymologically, the word samizdat derives from sam (روسية: сам, "self, by oneself") and izdat (روسية: издат, an abbreviation of издательство, izdatel'stvo, "publishing house"), and thus means "self-published". The Ukrainian language has a similar term: samvydav (самвидав), from sam, "self", and vydavnytstvo, "publishing house".[2]

The Russian poet Nikolai Glazkov coined a version of the term as a pun in the 1940s when he typed copies of his poems and included the note Samsebyaizdat (Самсебяиздат, "Myself by Myself Publishers") on the front page.[3]

Tamizdat refers to literature published abroad (там, tam, "there"), often from smuggled manuscripts.[4]


التقنيات

All Soviet-produced typewriters and printing devices were inventorized, with their typographic samples collected right at the factory and stored in the government directory.[بحاجة لمصدر] Because every typewriter has micro features which are individual as much as human fingerprints, it allowed the KGB investigators to promptly identify the device which was used to type or print the text in question, and apprehend its user.[بحاجة لمصدر] However, certain East German and Eastern European-made Cyrillic typewriters, most notably the Erika, were purchased by Soviet citizens while travelling to nearby socialist countries, skipped the sample collection procedure and therefore presented more difficulty to trace. Western-produced typewriters, purchased abroad and somehow brought or smuggled into the Soviet Union, were used to type Cyrillic text via Latin characters. To prevent capture, regular bookbinding of ideologically-approved books have been used to conceal the forbidden texts within.

"Эрика" берёт четыре копии,
Вот и всё!
...А этого достаточно.

The "Erika" takes four copies,
That is all!
...But that is enough.

— Alexander Galich on the Erika typewriter commonly used for carbon copies in Russian samizdat production.[5]

Samizdat copies of texts, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita or Václav Havel's essay The Power of the Powerless were passed around among trusted friends. The techniques used to reproduce these forbidden texts varied. Several copies might be made using carbon paper, either by hand or on a typewriter; at the other end of the scale, mainframe computer printers were used during night shifts to make multiple copies, and books were at times printed on semiprofessional printing presses in much larger quantities. Before glasnost, most of these methods were dangerous, because copy machines, printing presses, and even typewriters in offices were under control of the organisation's First Department (part of the KGB); reference printouts from all of these machines were stored for subsequent identification purposes, should samizdat output be found.

الصيغة الطبيعية

ساميزات مخفية داخل تجليد كتاب؛ معروضة في متحف المهن ومعارك الحرية، ڤلنيوس.

Samizdat distinguishes itself not only by the ideas and debates that it helped spread to a wider audience but also by its physical form. The hand-typed, often blurry and wrinkled pages with numerous typographical errors and nondescript covers helped to separate and elevate Russian samizdat from Western literature.[6] The physical form of samizdat arose from a simple lack of resources and the necessity to be inconspicuous. In time, dissidents in the USSR began to admire these qualities for their own sake, the ragged appearance of samizdat contrasting sharply with the smooth, well-produced appearance of texts passed by the censor's office for publication by the State. The form samizdat took gained precedence over the ideas it expressed, and became a potent symbol of the resourcefulness and rebellious spirit of the inhabitants of the Soviet Union.[7] In effect, the physical form of samizdat itself elevated the reading of samizdat to a prized clandestine act.[8]


التاريخ

Self-published and self-distributed literature has a long history in Russia. Samizdat is unique to the post-Stalin USSR and other countries with similar systems. Faced with the police state's powers of censorship, society turned to underground literature for self-analysis and self-expression.[9]


دوريات ساميزدات

Typewritten copy of the Russian human rights periodical A Chronicle of Current Events, Moscow


الأدبية

Typewritten edition of Everything Flows by Vasily Grossman, Moscow


التسجيلات المهربة

Homemade "bone record"

Ribs, "music on the ribs", "bone records",[10] or roentgenizdat (roentgen- referring to X-ray, and -izdat implying samizdat) were homemade phonograph records, copied from forbidden recordings that were smuggled into the country. Their content was Western rock and roll, jazz, mambo, and other music, and music by banned emigres. They were sold and traded on the black market.


دوريات ساميزدات البارزة

انظر أيضاً


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الهامش

  1. ^ Bukovsky 1979, p. 141.
  2. ^ Balan 1993.
  3. ^ Komaromi 2004, p. 598.
  4. ^ Kind-Kovács & Labov 2013, p. 19 fn. 1.
  5. ^ Etkind 1992, p. 597.
  6. ^ Komaromi 2004, pp. 608–609.
  7. ^ Komaromi 2004, p. 609.
  8. ^ Komaromi 2004, p. 605.
  9. ^ Alexeyeva 1987, p. 12.
  10. ^ NPR 2016.

المصادر العامة

  • Bukovsky, Vladimir (1979). To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-71640-1.
  • Balan, Borys (1993). "Samvydav". In Kubijovyč, Volodymyr (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ukraine. 4: Ph - Sr. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-3994-1. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  • Kind-Kovács, Friederike; Labov, Jessie, eds. (2013). Samizdat, Tamizdat, and Beyond: Transnational Media During and After Socialism. Studies in contemporary European history. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0-85745-585-7.
  • Feldbrugge, F. J. M. (1975). Samizdat and Political Dissent in the Soviet Union. Leyden: A.W. Sijthoff. ISBN 978-90-286-0175-8.
  • Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1987). Soviet Dissent: Contemporary Movements for National, Religious, and Human Rights. Carol Pearce, John Glad (trans.). Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6176-3.
  • Crump, Thomas (2013). Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union. Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66922-6.
  • Urban, Michael E.; Igrunov, V.; Mitrokhin, S. S. (1997). The Rebirth of Politics in Russia. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-521-56248-5.
  • Reddaway, Peter (1972). Uncensored Russia – protest and dissent in the Soviet Union. The unofficial Moscow journal, A Chronicle of Current Events. New York: American Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0070513549.
  • Кашин, Олег (June 2009). ""Настоящий диссидент, только русский". Вспоминает ветеран многоподъездной системы" [A true dissident, only a Russian one. A veteran of the multi-podyezd system remembers]. «Русская жизнь».
  • Meerson-Aksenov, Mikhail Georgievich; Shragin, Boris Iosifovich (1977). The Political, social, and religious thought of Russian samizdat: an anthology. Belmont, MA: Nordland Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-913124-13-0.
  • Komaromi, Ann (2004). "The Material Existence of Soviet Samizdat". Slavic Review. 63 (3): 597–618. doi:10.2307/1520346. JSTOR 1520346.
  • Joo, Hyung-min (June 2004). "Voices of freedom: samizdat". Europe-Asia Studies. 56 (4): 571–594. doi:10.1080/0966813042000220476. JSTOR 4147387.
  • Stelmakh, Valeria D. (Winter 2001). "Reading in the Context of Censorship in the Soviet Union". Libraries & the Cultural Record. 36 (1): 143–151. doi:10.1353/lac.2001.0022. ISSN 1932-9555. Retrieved 2016-04-30.
  • Kind-Kovács, Friederike; Labov, Jessie (2013). "Samizdat and Tamizdat". In Friederike Kind-Kovács; Jessie Labov (eds.). Samizdat, Tamizdat, and Beyond: Transnational Media During and After Socialism. Studies in contemporary European history. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 1–29. ISBN 978-0-85745-585-7.
  • Etkind, Efim (1992). "Afterword: Russian literature in the 1980s". In Charles Moser (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russian Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–614. ISBN 978-1-139-05544-4. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  • "Bones And Grooves: The Weird Secret History Of Soviet X-Ray Music". NPR. 9 January 2016.
  • "samizdat". Jargon File 4.4.8. Eric Raymond. 2004-10-01. Retrieved 2016-04-22.
  • Raymond, Eric S. (1996). The New Hacker's Dictionary (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 395–396. ISBN 978-0-262-18178-5.


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للاستزادة

أعمال من الخارج

أعمال من الداخل

وصلات خارجية

قالب:Self-publishing