الدارجة التونسية

(تم التحويل من اللهجة التونسية)
هذا المقال هو عن a general description of the language. إذا كنت تريد the grammatical cases and conjugation، انظر Tunisian Arabic morphology.
Tunisian
تونسي Tounsi   
Tounsi.png
النطق[ˈtuːnsi] ( استمع)
موطنهاTunisia, north-eastern Algeria, Tripolitania
العرقTunisians
الناطقون الأصليون
11٫2 million native (2014 census)e18
Arabic script
Tunisian Sign Language
الوضع الرسمي
لغة أقلية
معترف بها في
As a variety of Maghrebi Arabic on 7 May 1999 (Not ratified due to several Constitutional Matters):[1][2]
أكواد اللغات
ISO 639-3aeb
Glottologtuni1259
Árabe tunecino.png

الدارجة أو اللهجة التونسية هي لهجة عربية محليّة في تونس. ويتجاوز انتشارها القطر التونسي ليصل إلى الشرق الجزائري و الغرب الليبي و كذلك عدد من البلدان الاوروبية كفرنسا و إيطاليا و ألمانيا بحكم هجرة التونسيين. و بإمكان المتحدّث باللّهجة التونسية ان يتخاطب مع المغربي و الجزائري و الليبي دون الاضطرار لتغيير لهجته بحكم قرب كل هذه الهجات من بعضها البعض. و تتميز الهجة التونسية عن غيرها من لهجات العرب بنطق جميع أحرف اللغة العربية الثمانية و العشرين. و قد دخلت على اللهجة التونسية بحكم موقعها في قلب البحر الابيض المتوسط عديد المفردات من لغات اجنبية كالإيطالية و الفرنسية و التركية و الاسبانية.


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تأثّر اللهجة التونسية باللغات الاخرى

تتميز اللهجة التونسية بحضور قوي لكلمات من لغات و لهجات غير عربية التي أصبحت جزءا لا يتجزّأ من اللهجة المحلية. في الدارجة التونسية ألفاظ من اللغات التحتية أي لغة المنشأ كالأمازيغية التي كانت لغة المناطق الداخلية قبل دخول الاسلام و الفينيقية التي كانت اللغة المهيمنة على السواحل بالاضافة للغة اللاتنيية. كما تتضمن اللهجة التونسية الفاظا تركية و يونانية و فارسية و إسبانية و بدرجة اكبر إيطالية و فرنسية. ولا نستطيع أن نفهم سبب وجود هذه الألفاظ الأجنبية الأصل إلا إذا رجعنا إلى التاريخ وعرفنا مختلف الحضارات والمراحل التاريخية في تونس.


إختلاف اللهجات حسب المناطق

تتميز اللهجة التونسية بتنوعها و إختلافها من منطقة الى اخرى و يمكن التمييز بين لهجة المدن و لهجة الريف. كما يمن تقسيمها أفتراضيا الى 6 لهجات محلية

لهجة الشمال الشرقي التي تضم تونس الكبرى و ولايات بنزرت و نابل تتميز بطغيان كبير للمفردات الايطالية و الفرنسية

لهجة الساحل التي تضم ولايات سوسة و المنستير و المهدية التي تتميز بنطق آنِي للدلاله على ضمير المتكلم المفرد انا.

لهجة صفاقس التي تضم صفاقس و ما حولها التي تتميز بمرونتها و سرعة النطق فيها (لهجة جزر قرقنة تتميز بكونها قريبة لدرجة كبيرة للغة المالطية).

لهجة الجنوب الغربي المتميزة بطغيان العربية الفصحى في الكلام فكانت بذلك منبع اهم شعراء تونس ك أبو القاسم الشابي.

لهجة الجنوب الشرقي القريبة من لهجة الغرب الليبي.

لهجة الشمال الغربي القريبة من لهجة الشرق الجزائري.

و ورغم ذلك فداخل كل لهجة محلية هناك فوارق طفيفة بين كل مدينة و كل منطقة و خصوصا بين الريف و المدينة.

النّطق

تتميز اللهجة التونسية بالنطق الصحيح لاغلب حروف العربية (كالقاف والضاد ...الخ, علما أنه في بعض المناطق, تنطق القاف ڤ أي جيم مصرية). توجد استثناء لقاعدة النطق الصحيح وهي الجيم التي تنطق عادة زاء عندما تسبقها أم تليها زاء و ذلك لتخفيف الكلمة(مثلا جزّار => ززّار, زَوْجْ => زُوزْ ...). مقارنة بالعربية الفصحى, يتم نطق الكلمات عامّة باسكان الحرف الأول و حذف السكون في وسط الكلمة و اسكان الحرف الأخير(غَنِيٌّ => غْنِيْ, فَقِيرْ => فْقِيرْ, كَبِيرْ => كْبِيرْ). يتم أيظا, اذا كان حرف الألف في وسط الكلمة, امّا حذفه أو تعويضه بياء (رَأَيْتْ => رِيتْ, قَرَأْتُ => قْرِيتْ)

Word fusion

In Tunisian, some new words and structures were created through the fusion of two words or more.[بحاجة لمصدر] Almost all question words fall into the latter category. The question words are noticeable by beginning or ending with the sound š or āš and are not to be confused with the negation mark, š, which agrees verbs, as in mā mšītš ما مشيتش (I did not go).[3]

The table below shows a comparison of various question words in Tunisian, Standard Arabic and English:[3][4]

Tunisian Arabic Construction Standard Arabic English
škūn شكون āš + kūn آش + كون من /man/ who
šnūwa شنو (masc.)
šnīya (fem.) شني
āš آش		 āš + n + (h)ūwa آش + هو
āš + n + (h)īya آش + هي
āš آش		 ماذا /maːða/ what
waqtāš وقتاش waqt + āš وقت + آش متى /mata/ when
lwāš لواش l- + āš ل + آش لماذا /limaːða/ for what reason
ʿlāš علاش ʿlā + āš على + آش لماذا /limaːða/ why
kīfāš كيفاش kīf + āš كيف + آش كيف /kajfa/ how
qaddāš قدّاش qadd + āš قدّ + آش كم /kam/ how much
mnāš مناش min + āš من + آش من أين /man ʔajna/ from what
fāš فاش fī + āš في + آش في من /fi man/ in what, what
wīn وين w + ayn و + اين أين /ʔajna/ where

Some of the question words can be merged with other structures such as the prepositions and object pronouns. For example, "who are you" becomes شكونك إنت škūnik intī or simply شكونك škūnik and "how much is this" becomes بقدّاش b-qaddāš.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Another example of word fusion in Tunisian is the formation of numerals between 11 and 19, which are pronounced as one word, composed of the name of the digit obtained by subtracting 10 to the number and the suffix طاش ṭāš derived from the standard Arabic word عَشَرَ /ʕaʃara/, those numbers are in order: احداش aḥdāš, اثناش θṇāš, ثلطّاش θlaṭṭāš, أربعطاش aṛbaʿṭāš, خمسطاش xmasṭāš, سطّاش sitṭāš, سبعطاش sbaʿṭāš, ثمنطاش θmanṭāš and تسعطاش tsaʿṭāš.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Metathesis

Metathesis is the shift of the position of the first vowel of the word.[5][6] It occurs when the unconjugated verb or unsuffixed noun begins with CCVC, where C is an ungeminated consonant and V is a short vowel.[5][6][7] When a suffix is added to this kind of noun or when the verb is conjugated, the first vowel changes of position and the verb or noun begins with CVCC.[5][6][7]

For example:

  • (he) wrote in Tunisian Arabic becomes كتب ktib and (she) wrote in Tunisian Arabic becomes كتبت kitbit.[8][5]
  • some stuff in Tunisian Arabic becomes دبش dbaš and my stuff in Tunisian Arabic becomes دبشي dabšī.[8][5]

Stress

Stress is not phonologically distinctive[6] and is determined by the word's syllable structure. Hence,

  • it falls on the ultimate syllable if it is doubly closed:[6] سروال sirwāl (trousers).
  • Otherwise, it falls on the penultimate syllable,[3] if there is one: جريدة jarīda (newspaper).
  • Stress falls on all the word if there is only one syllable within it:[6] مرا mṛa (woman).
  • Affixes are treated as part of the word:[6] نكتبولكم niktbūlkum (we write to you).

For example:

  • جابت jābit (She brought).[3][6]
  • ما جابتش mā jābitš (She did not bring).[3][6]


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Assimilation

Assimilation is a phonological process in Tunisian Arabic.[9][4][6] The possible assimilations are:

/ttˤ/ > /tˤː/ /tˤt/ > /tˤː/ /χh/ > /χː/ /χʁ/ > /χː/
/tɡ/ > /dɡ/ /fd/ > /vd/ /ħh/ > /ħː/ /nl/ > /lː/
/sd/ > /zd/ /td/ > /dː/ /dt/ > /tː/ /ln/ > /nː/
/hʕ/ > /ħː/ /tð/ > /dð/ /hħ/ > /ħː/ /nr/ > /rː/
/nf/ > /mf/ /qk/ > /qː/ /kq/ > /qː/ /lr/ > /rː/
/ndn/ > /nː/ /ħʕ/ > /ħː/ /ʁh/ > /χː/ /ʕh/ > /ħː/
/ʃd/ > /ʒd/ /fC/[1] > /vC/[2] /bC/[3] > /pC/[4] /nb/ > /mb/
/ʕħ/ > /ħː/ /tz/ > /d͡z/ /tʒ/ > /d͡ʒ/
  • ^1 Only if C is a voiced consonant.[4][6]
  • ^2 Only if C is a voiceless consonant.[4][6]

Consonants

Tunisian Arabic qāf has [q] and [ɡ] as reflexes in respectively sedentary and nomadic varieties: he said is [qɑːl] instead of [ɡɑːl]). However, some words have the same form [ɡ] whatever the dialect: cow is always [baɡra][10] (the /g/ deriving from an originally Arabic [q]), and a specific species of date is always [digla][11] (the /g/ deriving from an originally Semitic [q] - e.g. Aramaic: /diqla/: date tree). Sometimes, substituting [g] by [q] can change the meaning of a word.[8] For example, garn means "horn" and qarn means "century".[8]

Interdental fricatives are also maintained for several situations, except in the Sahil dialect.[12]

Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic merged /dˤ/ ⟨ض⟩ with /ðˤ/ ⟨ظ⟩.[13]

Consonant phonemes of Tunisian Arabic
Labial Interdental Dental/Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain emphatic plain emphatic  plain  emphatic
Nasal m m (mˤ) ṃ n n (nˤ) ṇ
stop voiceless (p) p t t tˤ ṭ k k q q (ʔ)
voiced b b (bˤ) ḅ d d ɡ g
Affricate voiceless (t͡s) ts (t͡ʃ) tš
voiced (d͡z) dz
Fricative voiceless f f θ þ s s sˤ ṣ ʃ š χ x ħ ḥ h h
voiced (v) v ð ð ðˤ ḍ z z (zˤ) ẓ ʒ j ʁ ġ ʕ ʿ
Trill r r rˤ ṛ
Approximant l l ɫ ḷ j y w w

Phonetic notes:

  • The emphatic consonants /mˤ, nˤ, bˤ, zˤ/ rarely occur, and most of them are found in words of non-Arabic etymology.[14][15][4] Minimal pairs are not always easy to find for these contrasts, but there are nonetheless examples, which show that these marginal forms do not represent allophones of other phonemes.[3][16] For example:
/baːb/ [bɛːb] "door" and /bˤaːbˤa/ [ˈbˤɑːbˤɑ] "Father"[3][16]
/ɡaːz/ [ɡɛːz] "petrol" and /ɡaːzˤ/ [ɡɑːzˤ] "gas"[3][16]
These emphatic consonants occur before or after the vowels /a/ and /aː/.[3][4] A different analysis is that the posited allophones of /a/ and /aː/ are phonemically distinct, and it is the marginal emphatic consonants that are allophonic.[17][16][6]
  • /p/ and /v/ are found in words of non-Arabic etymology and are usually replaced by /b/, like in ḅāḅūr and ḅāla. However, they are preserved in some words, like pīsīn and talvza.[3][14][6]
  • /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡z/ are rarely used, for example tšīša, dzīṛa and dzāyir.[14][18]
  • The glottal stop /ʔ/ is usually dropped but tends to occur in the learned register, in loans from Standard Arabic, often in maṣdar (verbal noun) forms at the onset of the word but also in other words like /biːʔa/ "environment" and /jisʔal/ "he asks", though many (mainly less educated) speakers substitute /ʔ/ for /h/ in the latter word.[3][14]
  • Like in Standard Arabic, shadda "gemination" is very likely to occur in Tunisian. For example, haddad هدد meaning to threaten.[6]

Vowels

There are two primary analyses of Tunisian vowels:

  • Three vowel qualities, /a, i, u/ and a large number of emphatic consonants, namely /tˤ, sˤ, ðˤ, rˤ, lˤ, zˤ, nˤ, mˤ, bˤ/. /a/ has distinct allophones near guttural (emphatic, uvular and pharyngeal) consonants ([ɐ]) and near non-guttural consonants ([æ]).[3][4]
  • Four vowel qualities, /æ, ɐ, i, u/, and only the three phonemic emphatic consonants /tˤ, sˤ, ðˤ/. The other emphatic consonants are allophones found in the environment of /ɐ/.[17][14][8]

The first analysis is suggested by comparing other Maghrebi Arabic dialects, like Algerian and Moroccan Arabic, where the same phenomenon of vocalic allophony happens for /u/ and /i/ as well.[19]

Regardless of the analysis, Hilalian influence has provided the additional vowels /eː/ and /oː/ to the Sahil and southeastern dialects. These two long vowels are reflexes of the diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/.[20][21][4]

Tunisian Arabic vowels. It is unclear if the vowels written a are allophones or phonemic.
Front Back
unrounded rounded
short long long short long
Close ɪ i iː ī (yː) ü u u uː ū
Open-mid oral eː ā (œː) ë (ʊː) ʊ (oː) o
nasal (ɛ̃) iñ (ɔ̃) uñ
Open (ɑ̃) añ
oral æ a ɐ a ɐː ā
  • By assuming that pharyngealisation is a property of consonants, most dialects have three vowel qualities /a, i, u/, all also distinguished for length, as in Standard Arabic.[14][22]
  • The length distinction is suspended at the end of the word. A final vowel is realised long in accent-bearing words of one syllable (For example, جاء jā [ʒeː] he came), otherwise short.[3][14]
  • In non-pharyngealised environments, the open vowel /a/ is [e] in stressed syllables and [æ] or [ɛ] in unstressed syllables. In pharyngealised environments, the open vowel is [ɑ].[3][14][21]
  • /ɔː/ and nasal vowels are rare in native words, for most of the varieties of Tunisian and mainly for the Tunis dialect, like منقوبة mañqūba and لنڨار lañgār and mainly occur in French loans.[4][16] /yː/ and /œː/ only exist in French loanwords.[3][14]
  • Unlike other Maghrebi dialects,[19] short u and i are reduced to [o] and [e] when written between two consonants unless when they are in stressed syllables.[23][24]


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Syllables and pronunciation simplification

Tunisian Arabic has a very different syllable structure from Standard Arabic like all other Northwest African varieties.[25] While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, Tunisian Arabic commonly has two consonants in the onset.[16] For example, Standard Arabic book is كتاب /kitaːb/, while in Tunisian Arabic it is ktāb.[3][14]

The syllable nucleus may contain a short or long vowel, and at the end of the syllable, in the coda, it may have up to three consonants ما دخلتش (/ma dχaltʃ/ I did not enter). Standard Arabic can have no more than two consonants in this position.[3][14]

Word-internal syllables are generally heavy in that they either have a long vowel in the nucleus or consonant in the coda.[3][14]

Non-final syllables composed of just a consonant and a short vowel (light syllables) are very rare, generally in loans from Standard Arabic. Short vowels in this position have generally been lost (Syncope), resulting in the many initial CC clusters. For example, جواب /ʒawaːb/ reply is a loan from Standard Arabic, but the same word has the natural development /ʒwaːb/, which is the usual word for letter.[3][14]

As well as those characteristics, Tunisian Arabic is also known for differently pronouncing words according to their orthography and position within a text.[26][27] This phenomenon is known as pronunciation simplification[28] and has four rules:

  • [iː] and [ɪ], at the end of a word, are pronounced [i] and [uː]. Also, [u] is pronounced [u] and [aː]. [ɛː], [a] and [æ] are pronounced [æ].[29][30] For example, yībdā is practically pronounced as [jiːbdæ][31][32]
  • If a word finishes with a vowel and the next word begins with a short vowel, the short vowel and the space between the two words are not pronounced (Elision).[16][5][33] The phenomenon is seen clearly when Arabic texts are compared to their Latin phonemic transliteration in several works.[8]
  • If a word begins with two successive consonants, an epenthetic [ɪ] is added at the beginning.[34][8][31]
  • A sequence of three consonants, not followed by a vowel, is broken up with an epenthetic [ɪ] before the third consonant.[15][35] For example: يكتب yiktib, يكتبوا yiktbū.[15][35]

Morphology

المقالة الرئيسية: Tunisian Arabic Morphology

Nouns and adjectives in Tunisian Arabic are classified into nouns that have a regular plural and nouns that have an irregular plural.[3][4] Several nouns in Tunisian Arabic even have dual forms.[3][14][8] Irregular or broken plurals are broadly similar to those of Standard Arabic.[3][4] gender shift is achieved for singular nouns and adjectives by adding an -a suffix.[3][14] However, this cannot occur for most plural nouns.[3][4]

Tunisian Arabic has five types of pronouns: personal, possessive, demonstrative, indirect object and indefinite pronouns.[3][4] Unlike in Standard Arabic, there is a unique pronoun for the second person singular and a unique pronoun for the second person in plural.[3][14] Furthermore, there are three types of articles: definite, demonstrative and possessive articles.[3][4] Most of them can be written before or after the noun.[3][14]

As for verbs, they are conjugated in five tenses: perfective, imperfective, future, imperative, conditional present and conditional past Tenses and in four forms: affirmative, exclamative, interrogative and negative forms.[3][14] They can be preceded by modal verbs to indicate a particular intention, situation, belief or obligation when they are conjugated in perfective or imperfective tenses.[3][14] Questions in Tunisian Arabic can be āš (wh question) or īh/lā (yes/no question).[3][4]

The question words for āš questions can be either a pronoun or an adverb.[3][4] As for negation, it is usually done using the structure mā noun+š.[3][14]

There are three types of nouns that can be derived from verbs: present participle, past participle and verbal noun. There are even nouns derived from simple verbs having the root fʿal or faʿlil.[3][14] The same is true in Standard Arabic. Tunisian Arabic also involves several prepositions and conjunctions.[3][4] These structures ultimately derive from those of Standard Arabic, even if they are radically different in modern Tunisian because of heavy influence from Berber, Latin and other European languages.[3][14]

Semantics and pragmatics

Discourses in Tunisian Arabic are likely to use some rhetorical styles like metaphors.[36] Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic styles and tenses hold several figurative meanings.[37] For example, the use of past tense can mean that the situation is uncontrollable.[38] As well, the use of the third person pronouns can be figurative to mean saints and/or supernatural beings[39] and the use of demonstrative can have figurative meanings like underestimation.[40] Moreover, the name of some parts of the body can be used in several expressions to get figurative meanings.[38][41][42] That is entitled the embodiment.[41]

Some structures like nouns and verbs have figurative meanings,[8] and the use and the adoption of these figurative meanings depends on the circumstances of the discourse like the political situation of the country and the ages of the people participating in the discussion.[43][44]

International influences

Several Tunisian words were used in the lyrics of some famous Arabic songs and poems like ʿaslāma of Majda Al Roumi.[45] Furthermore, some famous Arabic singers were acknowledged for singing several old Tunisian Arabic songs like Hussain Al Jassmi[46] and Dina Hayek.[47] Tunisian Arabic influenced several Berber dialects by transferring to them several Arabic or Tunisian structures and words.[48] It was as well the origin of Maltese[49][50] and some of its words like بريك Brīk and فريكساي frīkasāy were inspired by French as loanwords.[51] The Il-Ṭalyānī Tunisian Arabic word meaning "the Italian" (الطلياني) was used as a title of a novel in standard Arabic which received the Booker Prize for Arabic literature in 2015.[52] Also, several prestigious television series from other Arabic countries like the Lebanese Cello Series involved a character talking in Tunisian Arabic.[53]

انظر أيضاً

Notes and references

  1. ^ (in فرنسية) Caubet, D. (2004). La" darja", langue de culture en France. Hommes et migrations, 34–44.
  2. ^ (in فرنسية) Barontini, A. (2007). Valorisation des langues vivantes en France: le cas de l'arabe maghrébin. Le Français aujourd'hui, 158(3), 20–27.
  3. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن هـ و ي أأ أب أت أث أج أح أخ أد خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة gibson
  4. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ Talmoudi, Fathi (1979) The Arabic Dialect of Sûsa (Tunisia). Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
  5. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة wise
  6. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض Chekili, F. (1982). The morphology of the Arabic dialect of Tunis (Doctoral dissertation, University of London).
  7. ^ أ ب Yun, S. (2013). To Metathesize or Not to Metathesize: Phonological and Morphological Constraints. XXVIIth Annual Arabic Linguistics Symposium. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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