صينيو الهان
.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
| صينيو الهان | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| الصينية المبسطة | 汉族 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| الصينية التقليدية | 漢族 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
صينيو الهان، شعب الهان[32][33][34] أو ببساطة هان[33][34][35] (漢族; پن‌ين: Hànzú، وتعني حرفياً "عرقية هان"[36] أو "جماعة هان العرقية"؛[37] أو 漢人; پن‌ين: Hànrén، وتعني حرفياً "شعب هان"[38]) هم جماعة عرقية موطنها شرق آسيا. ويشكلون نحو 92% من سكان الصين،[2] 95% من تعداد تايوان (تايوانيو الهان)،[39] 76% من تعداد المواطنين في سنغافورة، و 23% من تعداد ماليزيا[4] ونحو 18% من إجمالي تعداد البشر في العالم. وصينيو الهان هم أكبر جماعة عرقية في العالم بما يزيد عن 1.3 بليون نسمة.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
المصطلحات وأصل الكلمة
الاسم هان اشتـُق أصلاً من أسرة هان،[40] which succeeded the short-lived Qin dynasty, and historically considered to be the first golden age of China's العصر الامبراطوري due to its power and influence projected over معظم شرق آسيا وشمال شرق آسيا وجنوب شرق آسيا وآسيا الوسطى. As a result of the dynasty's prominence, in inter-ethnic and (pre-modern) international matters, many Chinese began identifying themselves as the "people of Han" (صينية: 漢人؛ پن‌ين: Hàn Rén�),[بحاجة لمصدر] a name that has been carried down. وبالمثل، فإن اللغة الصينية أصبحت تسمى "لغة الهان" (الصينية المبسطة: 汉语؛ الصينية التقليدية: 漢語�) منذ ذلك الحين. In the Oxford Dictionary, the Han are defined as "The dominant ethnic group in China".[41] In the Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, the Han are "the dominant population" in "China, as well as in Taiwan and Singapore."[42] According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the Han are "the Chinese peoples especially as distinguished from non-Chinese (as Mongolian) elements in the population".[43]
The Han dynasty's founding emperor, Liu Bang, was originally hailed as the king of the Hanzhong region after overthrowing the Qin dynasty, a title that was later shortened to "the King of Han" (漢王) during the Chu-Han contention. The name "Hanzhong", in turn, was derived from the Han River,[35] which flows through the region's plains. The Han River, in turn, derived its name from expressions such as Tianhan (صينية: 天漢�, "the heavenly river"), Yinhan (صينية: 銀漢�, "the silver river"), Xinghan (صينية: 星漢�, "the star river") or Yunhan (صينية: 雲漢�, "the cloud river"), all ancient Chinese poetic nicknames for the Milky Way first mentioned in the Classic of Poetry.
Prior to the Han dynasty, Chinese scholars used the term هواشيا (الصينية المبسطة: 华夏؛ الصينية التقليدية: 華夏؛ پن‌ين: Huá Xià�, "the magnificent شيا") in ancient texts to describe China proper as an area of illustrious prosperity and culture,[بحاجة لمصدر] while the Chinese populus were referred to as either the "various Hua" (諸華) or the "various Xia" (諸夏). This gave rise to a term commonly used nowadays by overseas Chinese for ethnic identity — Huaren (الصينية المبسطة: 华人؛ الصينية التقليدية: 華人؛ پن‌ين: Huá Rén�, "the Hua people"), as well as a literary name for China — Zhonghua (الصينية المبسطة: 中华؛ الصينية التقليدية: 中華؛ پن‌ين: zhōnghuá�, "the central Hua").[35]
Among some southern Han Chinese varieties such as Cantonese, Hakka, Minnan and Teochew, a different term exists — Tang Chinese (صينية: 唐人؛ پن‌ين: Táng Rén�, literally "the people of Tang"), derived from a later dynasty, the Tang dynasty, regarded as another zenith of Chinese civilization. The term is used in everyday conversation and is also an element in the Cantonese word for Chinatown: "street of the Tang people" (唐人街, Jyutping: tong4 jan4 gaai1, پن‌ين: Táng Rén Jiē. The phrase Huá Bù 華埠 is also used to describe the same area).
التوزيع
جمهورية الصين الشعبية
The vast majority of Han Chinese – over 1.2 billion – live in areas under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China (PRC), where they constitute about 92% of its population. Within the People's Republic of China, Han Chinese are the majority in every province, municipality, and autonomous region except for the autonomous regions of Xinjiang (45% in 2010) and التبت (8% in 2014), where Uighurs and Tibetans are the majority respectively. Han Chinese also constitute the majority in both of the special administrative regions of the PRC, about 95% of the population of هونگ كونگ[44] and about 96% of the population of Macau.[45]
التاريخ
Because of the overwhelming numerical and cultural dominance of the Han people in China, most of the written history of China can be read as "a history of the Han Chinese", with only passing references to the ethnic minorities in China.[46]
قبل التاريخ
الثقافة
China is one of the world's oldest and most complex civilizations. Chinese culture dates back thousands of years. Han Chinese maintain cultural affinities to Chinese lands outside of their locale by ancestor worship and Chinese clan associations, which often identify famous figures from Chinese history or myth as ancestors of current members.[47] Such patriarchs include the Yellow Emperor and Yan Emperor, who according to legend lived thousands of years ago and gave Han people the sobriquet "Descendants of Yan and Huang Emperor" (炎黃子孫; 炎黄子孙), a phrase which has reverberative connotations in a divisive political climate, as in that between mainland China and Taiwan.
.jpg)
Throughout the history of China, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Credited with shaping much of Chinese thought, Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, institutionalizing values like filial piety which implied the performance of certain shared rituals. Thus, villagers lavished on funeral and wedding ceremonies that imitated the Confucian standards of the Emperors.[47] Mastery of Confucian texts provided the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy, but even those degree-holders who did not enter the bureaucracy or who left it held increased social influence in their home areas, contributing to the homogenizing of Han Chinese culture. Other factors contributing to the development of a shared Han culture included urbanization and geographically vast but integrated commodity markets.[47]
اللغة
Han Chinese speak various forms of the Chinese language that are descended from a common early language;[47] one of the names of the language group is Hanyu (الصينية المبسطة: 汉语؛ الصينية التقليدية: 漢語�), literally the "Han language". Similarly, Chinese characters, used to write the language, are called Hanzi (الصينية المبسطة: 汉字؛ الصينية التقليدية: 漢字�), أو "حروف الهان".
الطعام
The cuisine of Han people varies from Sichuan's famously spicy food to Guangdong's Dim Sum and fresh seafood. Analyses revealed their main staple to be rice. During China's neolithic period, southernwestern rice growers transitioned to millet in the northwest when they could not find a suitable northwestern ecology, where it was typically dry and cold, to sustain the generous yields for their staple as well as it could in other areas such as along the eastern Chinese coast.[48]
الأدب
Han people have a rich history of classical literature dating back to three thousand years. Important early works include classics texts such as Classic of Poetry, Analects of Confucius, I Ching, Tao Te Ching, and the Art of War. Some of the most important Han Chinese poets in the pre-modern era include Li Bai, Du Fu, and Su Dongpo. The most important novels in Chinese literature, or the Four Great Classical Novels, are: Dream of the Red Chamber, Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Journey to the West.
الإسهامات للبشرية
Han Chinese have played a major role in the development of the arts, sciences, philosophy, and mathematics throughout history. In ancient times, the scientific accomplishments of China included seismological detectors, multistage rocket, rocket for recreational and military purposes, gunpowder, firearms, fire lance, cannon, landmine, naval mines, continuous flame thrower, fire arrow, trebuchet, crossbow, fireworks, pontoon bridge, matches, paper, printing, paper-printed money, insurance, civil service examination system, the raised-relief map, biological pest control, the multi-tube seed drill, rotary winnowing fan, blast furnace, cast iron, petroleum and natural gas as fuel, deep drilling for natural gas, oil drilling, porcelain, lacquer, lacquerware, silk fabric, dry docks, the pound lock, Grand Canal, the magnetic compass, south-pointing chariot, odometer, fishing reel, Su Song water-driven astronomical clock tower, chain pump, escapement, sliding calipers, trip hammer, kites, sunglasses, toothbrush, inoculation etc. Paper, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are celebrated in Chinese culture as the Four Great Inventions. Chinese astronomers were also among the first to record observations of a supernova.
Chinese art, Chinese cuisine, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese literature all have thousands of years of development, while numerous Chinese sites, such as the Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Army, are World Heritage Sites. Since the start of the program in 2001, aspects of Chinese culture have been listed by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Throughout much of history, successive Chinese Dynasties have exerted influence on their neighbors in the areas of art, music, religion, food, dress, philosophy, language, government, and culture. In modern times, Han Chinese form the largest ethnic group in China, while an overseas Chinese diaspora numbering in the tens of millions has settled in and contributed to countries throughout the world.
In modern times, Han Chinese have continued to contribute to mathematics and sciences. Among them are Nobel Prize recipients Steven Chu, Samuel C. C. Ting, Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Yuan T. Lee, Daniel C. Tsui, Roger Y. Tsien, and Charles K. Kao (known as the "Godfather of Broadband" and "Father of Fiber Optics");[49] Fields Medal recipients Terence Tao and Shing-Tung Yau, and Turing Award recipient Andrew Yao. Tsien Hsue-shen was a prominent rocket scientist who helped to found NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.[50] Chien-Shiung Wu, nicknamed the "First Lady of Physics" contributed to the Manhattan Project and radically altered modern physical theory and changed the accepted view of the structure of the universe.[51] Ching W. Tang was the inventor of the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) and hetero-junction organic photovoltaic cell (OPV) and is widely considered the "Father of Organic electronics".[52] Others include David Ho, one of the first scientists to propose that AIDS was caused by a virus, thus subsequently developing combination antiretroviral therapy to combat it. Dr. Ho was named Time Magazine Person of the Year in 1996.[53] Min Chueh Chang was the co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill and is known for his pioneer work and significant contributions to the development of in vitro fertilization at the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology.[54][55] Tu Youyou is a prominent medical scientist and chemist who became the first native Chinese in history to receive the Nobel Prize in natural sciences when she received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering artemisinin (also known as qinghaosu) and dihydroartemisinin, used to treat malaria, which has saved millions of lives across the world.[56] Choh Hao Li discovered Growth hormone (and subsequently used it to treat a form of Dwarfism caused by Growth hormone deficiency), Beta-endorphin (the most powerful of the body's natural painkillers), Follicle-stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone (the key hormone used in Fertility testing, an example is the ovulation home test).[57][58][59] Joe Hin Tjio was a cytogeneticist renowned as the first person to recognize the normal number of human chromosomes, a breakthrough in karyotype genetics.[60][61] Yuan-Cheng Fung, is regarded as the "Father of modern biomechanics" for pioneering the application of quantitative and analytical engineering principles to the study of the human body and disease.[62][63] The geometer Shiing-Shen Chern was one of the leaders in differential geometry of the 20th century and was awarded the 1984 Wolf Prize in mathematics. China's system of Barefoot doctors was among the most important inspirations for the World Health Organisation conference in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan in 1978, and was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough in international health ideology emphasizing primary health care and preventive medicine.[64][65]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
الديانة
الثقافة الصينية اتسمت لزمن طويل بالتعددية الدينية. فـالديانة الشعبية الصينية حافظت دوماً على تأثير عميق. فتتشارك الكونفوشية والطاوية، الناشئتان في الصين، في كونهما فلسفة أو دين، وأن كلاهما لا يتطلب الإتباع الحصري دون الديانات الأخرى، مما أسفر عن ثقافة تسامج وsyncretism حيث يقوم نفس الفرد بممارسة العديد من الديانات والمعتقدات في تناغم، بجانب العادات والتقاليد المحلية. كما تأثرت ثقافة الهان الصينية لزمن طويل بالبوذية، بينما في القرون الأخيرة حصلت المسيحية على موطئ قدم في الشعب, خصوصا بعد تدخل الغرب ضد اليابان في الصين.
الكونفوشية، a governing philosophy and moral code with some religious elements like عبادة السلف, is deeply ingrained in Chinese culture and was the official state philosophy in China منذ أسرة هان حتى سقوط الصين الامبراطورية في القرن العشرين.
الديانة الشعبية الصينية is the set of worship traditions of the ethnic deities of the Han people. It involves worship of various figures in Chinese mythology, folk heroes such as Guan Yu and Qu Yuan، الكائنات الأسطورية مثل التنين الصيني، أو الأسرة والعشيرة والسلف الوطنية. These practices vary from region to region, and do not characterize an organized religion, though many traditional Chinese holidays such as the Duanwu (or Dragon Boat) Festival, Qingming, and the عيد منتصف الخريف come from the most popular of these traditions.
Taoism, another indigenous religion, is also widely practiced in both its folk religion forms and as an organized religion, and has influenced Chinese art, poetry, philosophy, الطب، الفلك والخيمياء والطبخ وmartial arts, and العمارة الصينية. Taoism was the state religion of the early Han Dynasty, and also often enjoyed state patronage under subsequent emperors and dynasties.
In Han Dynasty, Confucian ideals were the dominant ideology. Near the end of the dynasty, Buddhism entered China and later gained popularity. Historically, Buddhism alternated between state tolerance and even patronage, and persecution. In its original form, Buddhism was at odds with the native Chinese religions, especially the elite, as certain Buddhist values often conflicted with Chinese sensibilities. However, through centuries of assimilation, adaptation, and syncretism, البوذية الصينية gained an accepted place in the culture. Buddhism would come to be influenced by Confucianism and Taoism, and exerted influence in turn, such as in the form of الكونفوشية الجديدة.
Though التأثير المسيحي في الصين existed as early as the 7th century, Christianity did not begin to gain a significant influence in China until contact with Europeans during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Chinese practices at odds with Christian beliefs resulted in the Chinese Rites controversy, and subsequent reduction in Christian influence. Christianity grew considerably following the حرب الأفيون الأولى, after which foreign missionaries in China enjoyed the protection of the Western powers, and widespread proselytism took place.[بحاجة لمصدر]
الهجرة التاريخية لهان الجنوبية من هان الشمالية
The term "Huaxia" was used to describe the shared ethnicity of all Chinese during the Warring States era by Confucius's contemporaries.[66] Chinese people called themselves Hua Ren.[67] Southern Han people such as the Hoklo, Cantonese and Hakka all claim northern Chinese ancestral origins, from ancestors who migrated from Northern China's Yellow River Valley during the 4th-12th centuries, Hoklo clans living in southeastern coastal China, such as in Chaozhou and Quanzhou–Zhangzhou, originated from northern China's Henan province during the Tang dynasty.[68] The Han people migrated to southeastern and southern China multiple times throughout history.[69] The origin of the Cantonese is said to be northern Chinese who moved to Guangdong while the indigenous Yue (Baiyue) descendants were the minorities who practiced tattooing, as written in "The Real Yue People" 真越人 (Zhen Yueren) essay by Qu Dajun 屈大均, a Cantonese scholar who extolled the Cantonese people's Chineseness.[70] Vietnam, Guangdong, and Yunnan all experienced a major surge in Han Chinese migrants in Wang Mang's reign.[69] Hangzhou's coastal regions and the Yangtze valley were settled in the 4th century by noble Northern Chinese families.[69] Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive amount of northern origin Han Chinese who moved south during the Eastern Jin dynasty.[69] The southern Chinese aristocracy was formed from the offspring these migrants.[71] Celestial Masters and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Eastern Jin and Western Jin in Jiangnan in particular.[72] The most populous region of China was southern China after the depopulation of the north and the migration of northern Chinese to southern China.[73][74] Different waves of migration of aristocratic Chinese from northern China to the south at different times resulted in distinct groups of lineages, with some lineages arriving in the 300s-400s and others in the 800s-900s.[75] During the 700's Han migrants from northern China flooded into the south during the Tang dynasty.[76] Hong Kong history textbooks recall migrations of the Song and Tang dynasties to the south which resulted in Hong Kongers who are descended from ethnic Han settlers who originated from northern China.[77] Since it was during the Tang dynasty that Guangdong was subjected to settlement by Han people, many Cantonese, Hokkien and Teochew call themselves Tang.[78]
تحليل الدنا
Y-chromosome haplogroup O3 is a common DNA marker in Han Chinese, as it appeared in China in prehistoric times. It is found in more than 50% of Chinese males, and ranging up to over 80% in certain regional subgroups of the Han ethnicity.[79] However, the mitochondrial DNA of Han Chinese increases in diversity as one looks from northern to southern China, which suggests that male migrants from northern China married with women from local peoples after arriving in modern-day Guangdong, Fujian, and other regions of southern China.[80][81] Despite this, tests comparing the genetic profiles of northern Han, southern Han and southern natives determined that haplogroups O1b-M110, O2a1-M88 and O3d-M7, which are prevalent in southern natives, were only observed in some southern Hans (4% on average), but not in northern Hans. Therefore, this proves that the male contribution of southern natives in southern Hans is limited, assuming that the frequency distribution of Y lineages in southern natives represents that before the expansion of Han culture that started two-thousand years ago.[80][82] In contrast, there are consistent strong genetic similarities in the Y chromosome haplogroup distribution between the southern and northern Chinese population, and the result of principal component analysis indicates almost all Han populations form a tight cluster in their Y chromosome. However, other research has also shown that the paternal lineages Y-DNA O-M119,[83] O-P201,[84] O-P203[84] and O-M95[85] are found in both southern Han Chinese and South Chinese minorities, more common in the latter. In fact, these paternal markers are in turn less frequent in northern Han Chinese.[86][87][88] Another study puts Han Chinese into two groups: northern Han Chinese and southern Han Chinese, and it finds that the genetic characteristics of nowadays northern Han Chinese was already formed prior to three-thousand years ago in the Central Plain area.[89]
ملاحظات
- ^ Source: United States Central Intelligence Agency, 1983. The map shows the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups according to the historical majority ethnic groups by region. Note this does not represent the current distribution due to age-long internal migration and assimilation.
الهامش
- ^ 1.24 بليون (92% من إجمالي السكان) في جمهورية الصين الشعبية (CIA Factbook تقدير 2014)، ونحو 22 مليون في تايوان, ونحو 50 مليون الصينيون وراء البحار
- ^ أ ب CIA Factbook: "Han Chinese 91.6%" out of a reported population of 1,355 billion (July 2014 est.)
- ^ Barbara A. West (2009), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, Facts on File, p. 794, ISBN 1438119135
- ^ أ ب https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
- ^ "Race Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories: 2010 more information". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
- ^ Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010. Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. ISBN 9789790644175.
- ^ http://www.nptd.gov.sg/portals/0/news/population-in-brief-2014.pdf
- ^ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 17 February 2016.
- ^ Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. "Population by Ethnic Origin by Province". Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
- ^ http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ "The Ranking of Ethnic Chinese Population". Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Cambodia: Zongzi becomes a tool of affection relay_English_Xinhua".
- ^ Աܱå. "迬(۳) < ڷ < Ա·ܱå".
- ^ "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013".
- ^ http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=476&idmid=4&ItemID=9815
- ^ "国籍（出身地）別在留資格（在留目的）別外国人登録者(Number of foreign residents by country in 2008)" (in Japanese). Ministry of Justice. 2009-09-04.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)[بحاجة لمصدر أفضل] - ^ "2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom". Office for National Statistics. 11 October 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) "Chinese people are an important population mostly in Venezuela (400,000)..." P. 201 (in Spanish)[dead link] - ^ Park, Yoon Jung (2009). Recent Chinese Migrations to South Africa – New Intersections of Race, Class and Ethnicity (PDF). Interdisciplinary Perspectives. ISBN 978-1-904710-81-3. Retrieved September 20, 2010.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ [1] Non-EU citizens legally residing Jan 2016
- ^ "Migration & Bevölkerung". Migration & Bevölkerung. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ (بالألمانية) Erstmals mehr als 16 Millionen Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland (German text about migrants in Germany)[dead link]
- ^ "National Ethnic Population Projections: 2006(base)–2026 update". Retrieved July 22, 2011.
- ^ [2] Archived ديسمبر 4, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Little China in Belgrade". BBC News. 2001-02-12. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
- ^ Stetler, Carrie (18 October 2013). "As Chinese-Cuban Population Dwindles, Traditions Die". Rutgers Today. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
- ^ "X Censo Nacional de Población y VI de Vivienda 2011, Características Sociales y Demográficas" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica. July 2012. p. 61. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
Cuadro 23. Costa Rica: Población total por autoidentificación étnica-racial, según provincia, zona y sexo. Chino(a) 9,170
- ^ [3] Archived أكتوبر 16, 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Li, Anshan (2004), "Survival, Adaptation, and Integration: Origins and Development of the Chinese Community in Jamaica", in Wilson, pp. 41–68 Missing or empty
- ^ Hibbard, John. "A COMPARISON OF CABLE AND SATELLITE FOR CHRISTMAS ISLAND COMMUNICATIONS" (PDF). Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ 2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by Dr. Yang Fenggang, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011. Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29–54, ISSN 2192-9289.
- ^ Fairbank, John K. (1983). The Cambridge History of China Volume 12: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139054799. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
- ^ أ ب Wen; et al. (2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature. 431: 302–305. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID 15372031.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|last2=(help) - ^ أ ب Stix, Gary (2008). "Traces of a Distant Past" Scientific American, July: 56-63.
- ^ أ ب ت Liu, Xingwu (2004-01-01). Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin (eds.). Han (in الإنجليزية). Springer US. pp. 703–717. ISBN 9780306477546.
The name "Han" was derived from the Han River, an upper tributary of the Yangtze River. It was further strengthened by the famous Han Empire (206 BC–220 AD) which lasted for several hundred years when the people began active interactions with the outside world.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|subscription=ignored (|url-access=suggested) (help) - ^ Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance. Lexington Books. 2015. p. 69. ISBN 9781498507295.
{{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help) - ^ Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. Stanford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780520926790.
- ^ Kim, Hodong (2004). Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877. Stanford University Press. p. 320. ISBN 0804773645. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
- ^ Executive Yuan, R.O.C. (2015). The Republic of China Yearbook 2015. ISBN 9789860423020. Retrieved 2016-08-16.
- ^ Schaefer, Richard T. (2008-03-20). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society (in الإنجليزية). SAGE Publications. p. 279. ISBN 9781452265865.
Although the term han has its roots في أسرة هان (206 ق.م.–220 م)، التي بدأت حول النهر الأصفر ثم انتشرت، وقد أصبح المفهوم وطنياً عن حق في مطلع هذا القرن.
- ^ "Definition of Han by Oxford".
- ^ West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438119137.
- ^ "Definition of Han by Merriam-Webster".
- ^ Census and Statistics Department. "Population and Vital Events: Table 139 Population by ethnicity 2001 and 2006". Hong Kong Government. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
- ^ Global Results of By-Census 2006. Statistics and Census Service (DSEC) of the Macau Government. 2007.
- ^ Roberts, John A.G (2001). A History of China. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.
- ^ أ ب ت ث خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةCohen - ^ "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: A linguistic and archaeological model". p. 137.
- ^ Ferguson, Ben (7 October 2009). "'Master of Light' awarded Nobel Prize". The Independent.
- ^ "Qian Xuesen". The Daily Telegraph. 22 November 2009.
- ^ "Chien-Shiung Wu". National Women's Hall of Fame.
- ^ Forrest, Stephen (2012). "Energy efficiency with organic electronics: Ching W. Tang revisits his days at Kodak". MRS Bulletin. 37 (6): 552–553. doi:10.1557/mrs.2012.125.
- ^ "Dr David Ho, Man of the Year". Time Magazine. 30 December 1996.
- ^ "Min Chueh Chang". National Academy of Sciences.
- ^ "Chang Min-Chueh". Britannica Online for Kids.
- ^ Miller, Louis H.; Su, Xinzhuan (2011). "Artemisinin: Discovery from the Chinese Herbal Garden". Cell. 146 (6): 855–8. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.08.024. PMC 3414217. PMID 21907397.
- ^ Maugh II, Thomas (2 December 1987). "Discovered Human Growth Hormone : Choh Hao Li, 74; Endocrinologist at UC". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ "Choh Hao Li". National Academy of Sciences.
- ^ "Choh Hao Li". A History of UCSF People.
- ^ Wright, Pearce (11 December 2001). "Joe Hin Tjio The man who cracked the chromosome count". The Guardian.
- ^ Saxon, Wolfgang (7 December 2001). "Joe Hin Tjio, 82; Research Biologist Counted Chromosomes". The New York Times.
- ^ "News from the National Academies". National Academy of Sciences. 4 January 2007.
- ^ "Dr. Yuan-Cheng 'Bert' Fung". National Academy of Engineering. 2007.
- ^ "Consensus during the Cold War: back to Alma-Ata". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. World Health Organization. 86 (10): 737–816. October 2008.
- ^ "China's village doctors take great strides". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. World Health Organization. 86 (12): 909–88. December 2008.
- ^ Erica Fox Brindley (16 November 2015). Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-316-35228-1.
- ^ Gyanendra Pandey; Peter Geschiere (1 January 2003). The Forging of Nationhood. Manohar. p. 102. ISBN 978-81-7304-425-0.
- ^ Sow-Theng Leong; Tim Wright; George William Skinner (1997). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-2857-7.
- ^ أ ب ت ث Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
- ^ Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt; Wolfgang Schluchter; Björn Wittrock. Public Spheres and Collective Identities. Transaction Publishers. pp. 213–4. ISBN 978-1-4128-3248-9.
- ^ http://history.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/slides/Dissertation.pdf p. 81.
- ^ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 831–. ISBN 90-04-17585-7.
- ^ Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC--AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. 2000. p. 2.25. ISBN 978-0-7607-1973-2.
- ^ Haywood, John; Jotischky, Andrew; McGlynn, Sean (1998). Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492. Barnes & Noble. p. 3.21. ISBN 978-0-7607-1976-3.
- ^ Hugh R. Clark (2007). Portrait of a Community: Society, Culture, and the Structures of Kinship in the Mulan River Valley (Fujian) from the Late Tang Through the Song. Chinese University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-962-996-227-2.
- ^ Hugh R. Clark (2007). Portrait of a Community: Society, Culture, and the Structures of Kinship in the Mulan River Valley (Fujian) from the Late Tang Through the Song. Chinese University Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-962-996-227-2.
- ^ Edward Vickers (13 September 2013). History Education and National Identity in East Asia. Routledge. pp. 191–. ISBN 978-1-135-40500-7.
- ^ Endymion Porter Wilkinson (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. 752–. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
- ^ Hurles, M; Sykes, B; Jobling, M; Forster, P (2005). "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 76 (5): 894–901. doi:10.1086/430051. PMC 1199379. PMID 15793703.
- ^ أ ب Wen, B.; Li, H.; Lu, D.; Song, X.; Zhang, F.; He, Y.; Li, F.; Gao, Y.; et al. (Sep 2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7006): 302–5. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID 15372031. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-24.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Xue, Fuzhong; Wang, Yi; Xu, Shuhua; Zhang, Feng; Wen, Bo; Wu, Xuesen; Lu, Ming; Deka, Ranjan; Qian, Ji; Jin, L (2008). "A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics. 16 (6): 705–17. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201998. PMID 18212820.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=ignored (|display-authors=suggested) (help) - ^ Wen, Bo; Li, Hui; Lu, Daru; Song, Xiufeng; Zhang, Feng; He, Yungang; Li, Feng; Gao, Yang; Mao, Xianyun; Zhang, L; Qian, J; Tan, J; Jin, J; Huang, W; Deka, R; Su, B; Chakraborty, R; Jin, L (2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature. 431 (7006): 302–5. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID 15372031.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=ignored (|display-authors=suggested) (help) - ^ Li, Hui (2008). "Paternal genetic affinity between western Austronesians and Daic populations". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (1): 146. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-146. PMC 2408594. PMID 18482451. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ أ ب Karafet, Tatiana; Hallmark, B; Cox, M. P.; Sudoyo, H; Downey, S; Lansing, J. S.; Hammer, M. F. (August 2010). "Major East–West Division Underlies Y Chromosome Stratification across Indonesia". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (8): 1833–44. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq063. PMID 20207712.
- ^ Karafet, Tatiana; Hagberg, L; Hanson, L. A.; Korhonen, T; Leffler, H; Olling, S (1981). "Balinese Y-chromosome perspective on the peopling of Indonesia: genetic contributions from pre-neolithic hunter-gatherers, Austronesian farmers, and Indian traders". Ciba Found Symp. 80: 161–87. PMID 6114819.
- ^ Y-DNA haplogroups by populations of East and Southeast Asia
- ^ Wang, Xiadong. "Han Chinese dialect area by the distribution of the Y chromosome". http://blog.ifeng.com/article/31381043.html. Wang Xiadong. Retrieved 10 June 2014.
{{cite web}}: External link in|website= - ^ Yan, Shi; Wang, C. C.; Li, H; Li, S. L.; Jin, L (2011). "An updated tree of Y-chromosome Haplogroup O and revised phylogenetic positions of mutations P164 and PK4". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (9): 1013–1015. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2011.64. PMC 3179364. PMID 21505448.
- ^ Zhao, Yong-Bin; Zhang, Ye; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Li, Hong-Jie; Cui, Ying-Qiu; Xu, Zhi; Jin, Li; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (2015). "Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to three-thousand Years Ago". PLoS ONE. 10 (5): e0125676. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125676.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
للاستزادة
- Yuan, Haiwang (30 March 2006). The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 9781591582946. OCLC 65820295.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
وصلات خارجية
- How the Han Chinese became the world's biggest tribe – People's Daily Online Sept 16, 2004
- Map share of ethnic by county of China (Chinese)
- CS1 errors: unsupported parameter
- All pages needing factual verification
- Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2016
- Articles with dead external links from May 2016
- CS1 errors: periodical ignored
- CS1 errors: deprecated parameters
- CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI
- Missing redirects
- Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016
- Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016
- "Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation
- Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters
- Articles containing صينية-language text
- مقالات تحتوي نصوصاً باللغة الصينية التقليدية
- Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016
- مقالات تحتوي نصوصاً باللغة الصينية المبسطة
- Articles with hatnote templates targeting a nonexistent page
- Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015
- صينيو الهان
- Ethnic groups officially recognized by China